Aluminum is the second most widely used metal in the world. It is readily available, offers a wide range of properties, and can be shaped, coated, and joined using a variety of methods. This chapter discusses some of the key attributes of wrought and cast aluminum alloys and the classifications, designations, and grades of available product forms. It also explains how aluminum alloys are used in aerospace, automotive, rail, and marine applications as well as in building and construction, electrical products, manufacturing equipment, packaging, and consumer durables such as appliances and furniture.

This appendix provides information on temper designations for strain-hardened aluminum, heat treatable aluminum alloys, and annealed aluminum products.

Aluminum has many outstanding properties, leading it to be used for a wide range of applications. It offers excellent strength-to-weight ratio, good corrosion and oxidation resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity, exceptional formability, and relatively low cost. This chapter examines the metallurgy, composition, processing, and mechanical properties of aluminum and its alloys, both cast and wrought forms. It also covers heat treating and basic temper designations, including annealed, work hardened, solution heat treated, and solution heated treated and aged. The chapter concludes with information on corrosion and oxidation resistance.

This article discusses the composition, properties, and behaviors of zinc and its alloys. It explains where cast and wrought zinc alloys are used, describes commercial designations and grades, and discusses the effect of various alloying elements on properties and performance.

Aluminum is protected by a barrier oxide film that, if damaged, reforms immediately in most environments. Despite this inherent corrosion resistance, there are conditions where aluminum alloys, like many materials, are subject to the effects of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). This chapter describes those conditions, focusing initially on the effects of alloying elements and temper on solution potential and how it compares to other metals. It then addresses the issue of intergranular corrosion and its role in SCC. It explains how factors such as stress loads, grain structure, and environment determine whether or not stress-corrosion cracking develops in a susceptible alloy. It also provides stress-corrosion ratings for many alloys, tempers, and product forms and includes information on hydrogen-induced cracking.

Aluminum generally has excellent resistance to corrosion and gives years of maintenance-free service in natural atmospheres, fresh waters, seawater, many soils and chemicals, and most foods. This chapter explains why aluminum and aluminum alloys are naturally resistant to corrosion and describes the conditions and circumstances under which their natural defenses break down. It discusses the causes and forms of corrosion observed in aluminum alloys and the effect of composition, microstructure, processing history, and environmental variables such as impurities, fluid flow, surface area, pressure, and temperature.

This article discusses the composition, structures, properties, and behaviors of aluminum alloys and explains how they correspond to specific alloying elements. It begins with an overview of the general characteristics of wrought and cast aluminum alloys, the four-digit classification system by which they are defined, and the applications for which they are suited. It then explains how primary alloying elements, second-phase constituents, and impurities affect yield strength, phase formation, and grain size and how they induce structural changes that help refine certain alloys. The article also explains how primary alloying elements affect corrosion and wear behaviors and how they influence fabrication processes such as forming, forging, welding, brazing, and soldering.

This chapter provides basic engineering information on aluminum alloys with an emphasis on their use in applications where weight is a significant design factor. It discusses the advantages and limitations of various types of aluminum along with their compositions, designations, and achievable strengths. It explains how some alloys are hardened through solution strengthening and cold working, while others are strengthened by precipitation hardening. It also describes production and fabrication processes such as melting, casting, rolling, forging, forming, extruding, heat treating, and joining, and includes a section on the causes and effects of corrosion and how they are typically controlled.

The discovery and use of materials have shaped civilization since ancient times. This chapter traces the history of the use of metals from hammered copper estimated to be 11,000 years old to the development of electrolytically refined aluminum in 1884. The discussion covers the advent of the Bronze Age, extraction of metals from their respective ores, and the discovery of modern metals such as chromium, vanadium, platinum, and titanium.

Magnesium occupies the highest anodic position on the galvanic series and can be subject to severe corrosion. The corrosion problem is due to the impurity elements iron, nickel, and copper. However, the use of higher-purity magnesium alloys has led to corrosion resistance approaching that of some of the competing aluminum casting alloys. This chapter begins with a general overview of magnesium metallurgy and alloy designations and moves on to discuss in detail the nominal compositions, mechanical properties, heat treatment, fabrication, and corrosion protection of magnesium casting alloys and wrought magnesium alloys. It also discusses the nominal compositions, properties, and applications of commercially pure zinc, zinc casting alloys, and wrought zinc alloys.

This appendix contains composition limit data for wrought aluminum and aluminum alloys.

This chapter provides a general overview of titanium and its versatility as an engineering material.

This chapter first introduces the various factors that may alter the physical and mechanical properties of aluminum castings that are addressed in the other chapters in the book. Then, it presents the historical development of aluminum castings, followed by a discussion on the advantages and limitations of aluminum castings. Next, the chapter describes the major trends that are influencing the increased use of aluminum castings. Finally, it introduces the considerations involved in the selection of an appropriate aluminum alloy and casting process for a given application.

Superalloys are nickel, iron-nickel, and cobalt-base alloys designed for high-temperature applications, generally above 540 deg C. This chapter covers the metallurgy, composition, and properties of cast and wrought superalloys. It provides information on melting, heat treating, and secondary fabrication processes. It also covers coating technology, including aluminide diffusion and overlay coatings, and addresses the advantages and disadvantages of superalloys in various applications.

This chapter provides a brief overview of nickel-iron-base, cobalt-base, and nickel-base superalloys, discussing their basic metallurgy and defining characteristics.

Casting is one of the basic processes used for the shaping of steel. It is economical in both cost and time of production. Numerous components are produced from cast steel because of the advantages of the process. These advantages can best be described under the following headings: design flexibility, metallurgical versatility and quality, and economic benefits. This chapter looks at these advantages of steel castings. Of major interest is the comparison of cast steel with wrought steel and weldments in terms of properties, availability, cost, and quality. The chapter also includes information on cast steel compared to other cast metals and other methods of steel fabrication.

This chapter describes the metallurgy of superalloys and the extent to which it can be controlled. It discusses the alloying elements, crystal structures, and processing sequences associated with more than a dozen phases that largely determine the characteristics of superalloys, including their properties, behaviors, and microstructure. It examines the role of more than 20 alloying elements, including phosphorus (promotes carbide precipitation), boron (improves creep properties), lanthanum (increases hot corrosion resistance), and carbon and tungsten which serve as matrix stabilizers. It explains how precipitates provide strength by impeding deformation under load. It also discusses the factors that influence grain size, shape, and orientation and how they can be controlled to optimize mechanical and physical properties.

This article discusses the composition, properties, and behaviors of copper and its alloys. It begins with an overview of the characteristics, applications, and commercial grades of wrought and cast copper. It then discusses the role of alloying, explaining how zinc, tin, aluminum, silicon, and nickel affect the physical and mechanical properties of coppers and high-copper alloys as well as brasses, bronzes, copper-nickels, and nickel silvers. It also explains how alloying affects electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, stress-corrosion cracking, and processing characteristics.

This chapter describes the mechanisms, characteristics, and prevention of intergranular and exfoliation corrosion in various aluminum alloys. It discusses susceptible alloys and recommended tempers and presents several examples of exfoliation in aircraft components. It also explains how the two forms of corrosion are related to stress-corrosion cracking.

This chapter discusses the advantages and disadvantages of producing titanium parts using powder metallurgy (PM) techniques. It compares the typical properties of wrought, cast, and PM titanium alloy products, addresses various manufacturing challenges, and describes several consolidation and shaping processes along with associated property data.