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thermally active defects
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Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110219
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... Abstract This chapter describes three approaches for 3D hot-spot localization of thermally active defects by lock-in thermography (LIT). In the first section, phase-shift analysis for analyzing stacked die packages is performed. The second example employs defocusing sequences...
Abstract
This chapter describes three approaches for 3D hot-spot localization of thermally active defects by lock-in thermography (LIT). In the first section, phase-shift analysis for analyzing stacked die packages is performed. The second example employs defocusing sequences for the localization of resistive electrical shorts in 3D architectures, and the third operates in cross sectional LIT mode to investigate defects in the insulation liner of Through Silicon Vias. All three approaches allow for a precise localization of thermally active defects in all three spatial dimensions to guide subsequent high-resolution physical analyses.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110196
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
.... , and Wirth K. , Thermal Laser Stimulation of Active Devices in Silicon – A Quantitative FET Parameter Investigation , IRPS, 357 - 360 ( 2004 ). 19. Nikawa K. and Tozaki S. , Novel OBIC Observation Method for Detecting Defects in Al Stripes Under Current Stressing , ISTFA , 303...
Abstract
This article reviews the basic physics behind active photon injection for local photocurrent generation in silicon and thermal laser stimulation along with standard scanning optical microscopy failure analysis tools. The discussion includes several models for understanding the local thermal effects on metallic lines, junctions, and complete devices. The article also provides a description and case study examples of multiple photocurrent and thermal injection techniques. The photocurrent examples are based on Optical Beam-Induced Current and Light-Induced Voltage Alteration. The thermal stimulus examples are Optical Beam-Induced Resistance Change/Thermally-Induced Voltage Alteration and Seebeck Effect Imaging. Lastly, the article discusses the application of solid immersion lenses to improve spatial resolution.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ciktmse.t56020001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-389-8
... of the <110> type, for a total of 12 slip systems. On the other hand, the bcc crystal structure does not have close-packed planes, and slip generally requires thermal activation. The densest packed planes in the bcc crystal structure are of the {110} type (six distinct planes), and the shortest lattice...
Abstract
Alloying, heat treating, and work hardening are widely used to control material properties, and though they take different approaches, they all focus on imperfections of one type or other. This chapter provides readers with essential background on these material imperfections and their relevance in design and manufacturing. It begins with a review of compositional impurities, the physical arrangement of atoms in solid solution, and the factors that determine maximum solubility. It then describes different types of structural imperfections, including point, line, and planar defects, and how they respond to applied stresses and strains. The chapter makes extensive use of graphics to illustrate crystal lattice structures and related concepts such as vacancies and interstitial sites, ion migration, volume expansion, antisite defects, edge and screw dislocations, slip planes, twinning planes, and dislocation passage through precipitates. It also points out important structure-property correlations.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110499
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... localization. The limits of bitmapping are overcome by TIVA (Thermally Induced Voltage Alteration), OBIRCH (Optical Beam Induced Resistance Change) and Soft Defect Localization (SDL) for failure in the devices’ periphery of the array. The SDL techniques requires adaptation to memory test systems in order...
Abstract
This article provides an introduction to the dynamic random access memory (DRAM) operation with a focus to localization techniques of the defects combined with some physical failure analysis examples and case studies for memory array failures. It discusses the electrical measurement techniques for array failure analysis. The article then presents know-how-based analysis techniques of array failures by bitmap classification. The limits of bitmapping that lead to well-known localization techniques like thermally induced voltage alteration and optical beam induced resistance change are also discussed. The article concludes by providing information on soft defect localization techniques.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110524
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... non-propagating defects. The defects do not propagate because they are not mid-gap recombination sites, and therefore, non-absorbing and not electrically active under most conditions [1] . Such lasers are vulnerable to damage from electrical overstress (EOS), for example, but after damaged, usually...
Abstract
Optoelectronic components can be readily classified as active light-emitting components (such as semiconductor lasers and light emitting diodes), electrically active but non-emitting components, and inactive components. This chapter focuses on the first category, and particularly on semiconductor lasers. The discussion begins with the basics of semiconductor lasers and the material science behind some causes of device failure. It then covers some of the common failure mechanisms, highlighting the need to identify failures as wearout or maverick failures. The chapter also covers the capabilities of many key optoelectronic failure analysis tools. The final section describes the common steps that should be followed so as to assure product reliability of optoelectronic components.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110666
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... failures (typically failures due to defects on the semiconductor device such as contamination or misprocessing). These issues are normally best addressed by yield improvement activities within the chip fabrication and assembly processes. The final or third (Wearout Failure or End-Of-Life) phase...
Abstract
This chapter surveys both basic quality and basic reliability concepts as an introduction to the failure analysis professional. It begins with a section describing the distinction between quality and reliability and moves on to provide an overview of the concept of experiment design along with an example. The chapter then discusses the purposes of reliability engineering and introduces four basic statistical distribution functions useful in reliability engineering, namely normal, lognormal, exponential, and Weibull. It also provides information on three fundamental acceleration models used by reliability engineers: Arrhenius, Eyring, and power law models. The chapter concludes with information on failure rates and mechanisms and the two techniques for uncovering reliability issues, namely burn-in and outlier screening.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110209
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... Abstract Many defects generate excessive heat during operation; this is due to the power dissipation associated with the excess current flow at the defect site. There are several thermal detection techniques for failure analysis and this article focuses on infrared thermography with lock...
Abstract
Many defects generate excessive heat during operation; this is due to the power dissipation associated with the excess current flow at the defect site. There are several thermal detection techniques for failure analysis and this article focuses on infrared thermography with lock-in detection, which detects an object's temperature from its infrared emission based on blackbody radiation physics. The basic principles and the interpretation of the results are reviewed. Some typical results and a series of examples illustrating the application of this technique are also shown. Brief sections are devoted to the discussion on liquid-crystal imaging and fluorescent microthermal imaging technique for thermal detection.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... as sources and sinks of other defects and are less active in deformation and corrosion than ordinary grain boundaries. Fig. 13 Color micrograph from cold-worked and annealed alpha brass (Cu-30Zn) with many annealing twins (some with arrows). Grains and twins are tinted various colors according...
Abstract
The building block of all matter, including metals, is the atom. This chapter initially provides information on atomic bonding and the crystal structure of metals and alloys, followed by a description of three crystal lattice structures of metals: face-centered cubic, hexagonal close-packed, and body-centered cubic. It then describes the four main divisions of crystal defects, namely point defects, line defects, planar defects, and volume defects. The chapter provides information on grain boundaries of metals, processes involved in atomic diffusion, and key properties of a solid solution. It also explains the aspects of a phase diagram that shows what phase or phases are present in the alloy under conditions of thermal equilibrium. Finally, a discussion on the applications of equilibrium phase diagrams is presented.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ciktmse.9781627083898
EISBN: 978-1-62708-389-8
Book Chapter
Book: Principles of Brazing
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pb.t51230221
EISBN: 978-1-62708-351-5
... three different active constituents Typical process conditions used, suggesting some correlation between joint strength and the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the interfacial compounds formed by reaction Active constituent Bending strength, MPa CTE of the interfacial compound formed...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the processes involved in the wetting, spreading, and chemical interaction of a braze on a nonmetal. The chapter reviews the key materials and process issues relating to the joining of nonmetals using active brazing. Emphasis is placed on the differences in brazing to metals by established methods. The chapter also describes the designing process and properties of metal/nonmetal joints.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110545
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... characteristics of common failure modes for a 72-cell module with 3 amps/cell of current output Thermal Imaging of Modules Many different techniques have been developed to characterize solar cells and their defects. The most commonly used is thermal imaging with an camera sensitive to infrared black...
Abstract
Post-mortem analysis of photovoltaic modules that have degraded performance is essential for improving the long term durability of solar energy. This article focuses on a general procedure for analyzing a failed module. The procedure includes electrical characterization followed by thermal imaging such as forward bias, reverse bias, and lock-in, and emission imaging such as electroluminescence and photoluminescence imaging.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110025
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
..., figure 9 . Figure 9 Thermal emission on board level while stimulating the electrical defect show a single hot spot within the region of multiple capacitors. Further thermal measurements at higher optical magnification identify a local thermal emission in the direct environment to a single...
Abstract
In embedded systems, the separation between system level, board level, and individual component level failure analysis is slowly disappearing. In order to localize the initial defect area, prepare the sample for root cause analysis, and image the exact root cause, the overall functionality has to be maintained during the process. This leads to the requirement of adding additional techniques that help isolate and image defects that are buried deeply within the board structure. This article demonstrates an approach of advanced board level failure analysis by using several non-destructive localization techniques. The techniques considered for advanced fault isolation are magnetic current imaging for shorts and opens; infrared thermography for electrical shorts; time-domain-reflectometry for shorts and opens; scanning acoustic microscopy; and 2D/3D X-Ray microscopy. The individual methods and their operational principles are introduced along with case studies that will show the value of using them on board level defect analysis.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.cfap.t69780249
EISBN: 978-1-62708-281-5
... Abstract This article is a detailed account of the mechanisms of fatigue failure of polymers, namely thermal fatigue failure and mechanical fatigue failure. The mechanical fatigue failure is discussed in terms of fatigue crack initiation and fatigue crack propagation. thermal fatigue...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 April 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.bpapp.t59290139
EISBN: 978-1-62708-319-5
... decomposition and evaporation are both thermally activated processes sensitive to temperature, T , nominally following an Arrhenius temperature (K) dependence: (Eq 7.4) dM dt = A exp − Q R T In this equation, M equals the mass, t is the time, dM / dt is the mass loss rate...
Abstract
Binder removal approaches involve various combinations of heat, solvents, vacuum, and pressure. In each variant, the goal is binder removal without component damage. This chapter addresses the factors that control success, showing how process decisions depend on the powder and binder characteristics. The chapter starts with a comparison of binder-, lubricant-, and polymer-removal situations that arise after powder shaping and then describes the general principles of binder removal in powder-binder techniques. The subsequent sections discuss in detail characteristics, operating procedure, equipment setup, advantages, limitations, and applications of first- and second-stage binder removal processes, as well as the factors influencing these processes. Cost issues associated with binder-removal technologies are also discussed.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.isceg.t59320323
EISBN: 978-1-62708-332-4
... °C), Joules/kg °Kelvin 680 710 570 490 Cost Least expensive More expensive Much more expensive Most expensive Thermal expansion percentage is an index of: Expansion defects such as scabs, finning, and veining Refractory stability against sand burn-on Lower thermal...
Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of key elements in controlling the casting process, systems to confirm the quality of outgoing components, and the steps needed to launch a novel product. The discussion also provides information on process control tools and techniques; incoming material control; process control of sand preparation and system maintenance; metallic charge materials; product quality control; and melting, metallurgical, and mechanical testing.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 1983
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mlt.t62860133
EISBN: 978-1-62708-348-5
... Zirconium 2.40 2.00 3.99 Figure 4.36 Lorenz ratio for pure metals and defect-free metals. Figure 4.37 Values of the total Lorenz number for several classes of commonly used structural materials. Figure 4.38 Reduced thermal conductivity vs. reduced temperature of 22 metallic...
Abstract
This chapter presents basic principles and the theoretical results of heat transport in solids. Thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity are the principal properties discussed. Discussions are also included on the effects of temperature, magnetic field, and metallurgical variations caused by composition, processing, and heat-treatment differences. Numerous graphs illustrate the qualitative and quantitative effects of these variables. Measurement methods and associated accuracies and pertinent empirical correlations are presented.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ffub.t53610001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-303-4
... intensity Temperature Thermal and mechanical fatigue cycles Corrosion concerns Improper maintenance Material Defects With the advent of strict quality-assurance controls and nondestructive inspection systems, manufacturing and material defects are not as common as in early years. Yet...
Abstract
This chapter provides a brief review of industry’s battle with fatigue and fracture and what has been learned about the underlying failure mechanisms and their effect on product lifetime and service. It recounts some of the tragic events that led to the discovery of fatigue and brittle fracture and explains how they reshaped design philosophies, procedures, and tools. It also discusses the influence of material and manufacturing defects, operating conditions, stress concentration and intensity, temperature and pressure, and cyclic loading, all of which play a role in the onset of fatigue cracking and thus should be considered when predicting useful product life.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110506
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
...-cell coupling faults. An aggressor operation is a memory access that activates one or more bit cells into a failing state. The trade off for having a shorter test is the lack of ability to locate aggressor operations that other N 3/2 or N 2 algorithms can achieve. There are many variations of march...
Abstract
Semiconductor memories are superb drivers for process yield and reliability improvement because of their highly structured architecture and use of aggressive layout rules. This combination provides outstanding failure signature analysis possibilities for the entire design, manufacturing, and test process. This article discusses five key disciplines of the signature analysis process that need to be orchestrated within the organization: design for test practices, test floor data collection methodology, post-test data analysis tools, root cause theorization, and physical failure analysis strategies.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mnm2.t53060013
EISBN: 978-1-62708-261-7
... ). Twins are two-dimensional defects of lower stored energy than the stored energy in high-angle grain boundaries. Therefore, twin boundaries are less effective as sources and sinks of other defects and are less active in deformation and corrosion than ordinary grain boundaries. Fig. 2.20 Color...
Abstract
This chapter introduces many of the key concepts on which metallurgy is based. It begins with an overview of the atomic nature of matter and the forces that link atoms together in crystal lattice structures. It discusses the types of imperfections (or defects) that occur in the crystal structure of metals and their role in mechanical deformation, annealing, precipitation, and diffusion. It describes the concept of solid solutions and the effect of temperature on solubility and phase transformations. The chapter also discusses the formation of solidification structures, the use of equilibrium phase diagrams, the role of enthalpy and Gibb’s free energy in chemical reactions, and a method for determining phase compositions along the solidus and liquidus lines.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.sch6.t68200133
EISBN: 978-1-62708-354-6
... problems associated with that process. Problems such as gas entrapment, mold erosion and spalling defects, slag and dross inclusions, misruns and undesirable thermal gradients within the casting, have been traditionally attacked by designing gating systems that provide smooth, low energy flow, proper...