This chapter describes the basics of energy and entropy and “free energy.” Fundamentals of internal energy U , the enthalpy H , entropy S , free energies G , and F of a substance are presented. The chapter also presents the thermal vibration model to promote a better understanding of the U , S , and F of the crystal. It covers basic concepts of thermodynamics of magnetic transition and discusses the role and the meaning of magnetic transition in iron and steel. The chapter concludes with a general discussion on an amorphous phase from a thermodynamic viewpoint.

Many scientific-technological advances depend critically on solid-state elastic properties, their magnitudes, and their responses to variables like stress and temperature. This chapter provides the definitions and descriptions of elastic constants and emphasizes five aspects of engineering-material solid-state elastic constants: general properties; interrelationships; relationships, especially thermodynamic to other physical properties; changes during cooling from ambient to near-zero temperature; and near-zero-temperature behavior.

Specific heat is a fundamental property that relates the total heat per unit mass added to a system to the resultant temperature change of the system. This chapter begins with the definition and historical development of specific heat. Thermodynamic and solid state relationships are presented which include discussions about lattice specific heat and the effects of magnetic and superconducting transitions. Data sources for practical applications and methods of estimating specific heat for materials are also included. The chapter concludes with a section concerning the measurement of specific heat at low temperatures.

The physical properties of a material are those properties that can be measured or characterized without the application of force and without changing material identity. This chapter discusses in detail the common physical properties of metals, namely density, electrical properties, thermal properties, magnetic properties, and optical properties. Some physical properties for a number of metals are given in a table.

Specific heat and thermal expansion are closely related. Following a discussion on thermal expansion theory, methods of measurement techniques are presented along with their advantages and disadvantages. The results of the measurements are then summarized for three classes of materials: metallics, nonmetallics, and composites. Because predicting thermal expansion values for unmeasured or novel materials is useful, the chapter also describes the means of making educated guesses for low-temperature values. A short discussion on how thermal expansion data can be used is followed by a section describing where such data can be found.

This chapter familiarizes readers with the mechanisms involved in creep and how they are related to fatigue behavior. It explains that what we observe as creep deformation is the gradual displacement of atoms in the direction of an applied stress aided by diffusion, dislocation movement, and grain boundary sliding. It describes these mechanisms in qualitative terms, explaining how they are driven by thermal energy and how they can be analyzed using creep curves and deformation maps. In addition, it examines the types of damage associated with creep, presents a number of creep strain and strain rate equations, explains how to determine creep constants, and reviews the findings of several studies on cyclic loading. It also discusses the development of a novel test that measures the cyclic creep-rupture resistance of materials in tension and compression.

This chapter reviews the basic theory of lubrication in the context of metal forming applications. It discusses the rheological properties of fluids and their effect on fluid-film thickness at pressures, temperatures, and loading conditions typical of metal working processes. It describes the three lubrication regimes (boundary, mixed, and hydrodynamic) of a Stribeck curve and the forces that maintain surface separation. It also discusses mixed, elastohydrodynamic, plastohydrodynamic, and solid or semi-solid lubrication, the effects of starvation and frictional instabilities, and the role of elastic deflection and ultrasonic vibration.

This chapter explains the idea of solution theory and the nature of mixed materials. The chapter considers approximation of free energy by the regular solution model and sublattice model. It discusses chemical potential and nonrandom distribution based on the interactions between solute atoms.

This chapter explains how the authors assessed the potential risks of creep-fatigue in several aerospace applications using the tools and techniques presented in earlier chapters. It begins by identifying the fatigue regimes encountered in the main engines of the Space Shuttle. It then describes the types of damage observed in engine components and the methods used to mitigate problems. It also discusses the results of analyses that led to changes in design or approach and examines fatigue-related issues in turbine engines used in commercial aircraft.

This chapter provides a detailed discussion on the Brownian motion, diffusion coefficient , and Fick's diffusion laws. It presents a review of solid phase diffusion and discusses the mechanism of diffusion and diffusion coefficient.

Drawing is a bulk deformation process that involves significant surface generation and high pressures. This chapter provides an overview of the mechanics and tribology of wire, bar, tube, and shape drawing. It presents important equations for calculating stresses, forces, friction, heat, strain, and distortion for different tooling configurations and geometries. It explains how to select and apply lubricants based on drawing speed, die design, and other factors and how to maintain sufficient film thickness for hydrodynamic, mixed, and solid-film lubrication conditions. It also discusses the use of vibrating dies, the influence of surface finish and defects, and lubrication practices for specific materials.

Diffusion is the movement of atoms through the crystalline lattice. This chapter discusses the two main types of diffusion that can occur in solids: interstitial diffusion and substitutional diffusion. It describes Fick's first and second laws of diffusion, with emphasis on several applications of the latter. The chapter also provides information on the temperature dependence of diffusion, intrinsic diffusion coefficients (Kirkendall effect), and high diffusion paths.

Rolling is unique in that it cannot be conducted without friction. Friction draws the workpiece into the roll gap and facilitates its passage through the deformation zone. This chapter provides an overview of the mechanics and tribology of flat rolling processes and explains how various aspects of the theory apply to shape rolling as well. It derives numerous equations and models to help quantify the forces, torque, and power involved in rolling operations and the associated heating, slip, strain distribution, and deformation in both the workpiece and rolls. It describes the friction and wear that occur in hot and cold rolling under hydrodynamic and mixed-film lubrication; the influence of viscosity, film thickness, rolling speed, interface pressure, pass reduction, and lubricant breakdown; and the effect of surface finish and defects. The chapter also provides best practices for evaluating, applying, and treating lubricants for industrially important materials including iron-base, nickel-base, and aluminum alloys.

This chapter discusses five forms of mechanically assisted degradation of metals: erosion, fretting, fretting fatigue, cavitation and water drop impingement, and corrosion fatigue. Emphasis is placed on the mechanisms and the factors affecting these forms of degradation.

The technology of fabricating composite hardware and structures by filament winding has evolved empirically through the development and manufacturing of specific components. This chapter reviews areas of technology used in building composite parts and discusses the processes from which the current technology was derived. The discussion covers quality control requirements for composite fabrication technology and cleanliness standards in the workplace. It describes technology developed for specific components, including satellites struts, aircraft hydraulic cylinders, drill pipe, drive shafts, couplings, and cryogenic tubing.

This chapter addresses some of the challenges involved in materials selection, providing context for much of the information presented in the book. It describes a typical four-step design scenario, noting material-related considerations and information needs. It explains how design decisions are complicated by the interconnected nature of material properties, design geometry, and manufacturing requirements and effects. The chapter also assesses the design impact of several materials and discusses codes, standards, and specifications.

Binder removal approaches involve various combinations of heat, solvents, vacuum, and pressure. In each variant, the goal is binder removal without component damage. This chapter addresses the factors that control success, showing how process decisions depend on the powder and binder characteristics. The chapter starts with a comparison of binder-, lubricant-, and polymer-removal situations that arise after powder shaping and then describes the general principles of binder removal in powder-binder techniques. The subsequent sections discuss in detail characteristics, operating procedure, equipment setup, advantages, limitations, and applications of first- and second-stage binder removal processes, as well as the factors influencing these processes. Cost issues associated with binder-removal technologies are also discussed.

This article focuses on characterization techniques used for analyzing the physical behavior and chemical composition of thermoset resins, namely chromatography and infrared spectroscopy. The main purpose is to give sufficient detail to permit the reader understand a particular test technique and its value to the thermoset resin field. Epoxy resins are emphasized in the examples because they dominate the airframe and aerospace industries. The article also provides information on two categories of characterization of the processing behavior of thermoset. The first studies the thermal properties of reactive thermoset systems, while the second utilizes these thermal characteristics as the basis for monitoring and control during processing.

In contrast to most plastic deformation processes, the shape of a machined component is not uniquely defined by the tooling. Instead, it is affected by complex interactions between tool geometry, material properties, and frictional stresses and is further complicated by tool wear. This chapter covers the mechanics and tribology of metal cutting processes. It discusses the factors that influence chip formation, including tool and process geometry, cutting forces and speeds, temperature, and stress distribution. It reviews the causes and effects of tool wear and explains how to predict and extend the life of cutting tools based on the material of construction, the use of cutting fluids, and the means of lubrication. It presents various methods for evaluating workpiece materials, chip formation, wear, and surface finish in cutting processes such as turning, milling, and drilling. It also discusses the mechanics and tribology of surface grinding and other forms of abrasive machining.