This appendix lists etch compositions and procedures that reveal strain patterns in aluminum and nickel-base superalloys.

This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the cyclic stress-strain behavior of materials under uniaxial stress and strain cycling. It first considers the case of a stable material under constant-amplitude strain cycling then broadens the discussion to materials that harden or soften with continued strain reversals. It compares and contrasts the response patterns of such materials, explaining how the movement of dispersed particles and dislocations influences their behavior. It then examines the behavior of materials under uniaxial strain reversals of varying amplitude and explains how to construct double-amplitude stress-strain curves that account for complex straining histories. For special cases, those involving complex materials such as gray cast iron or highly complex straining patterns, the chapter presents other methods of analysis, including the rainflow cycle counting method, mechanical modeling based on displacement-limited elements, Wetzel’s method, and deformation modeling. It also explains the difference between force cycling and stress cycling and presents alternate techniques for predicting whether a material will become harder or softer in response to strain cycling.

Strain-range partitioning is a method for assessing the effects of creep fatigue based on inelastic strain paths or strain reversals. The first part of the chapter defines four distinct strain paths that can be used to model any cyclic loading pattern and describes the microstructural damages associated with each of the four basic loading cycles. The discussion then turns to fatigue life prediction for different types of materials and more realistic loading conditions, particularly those in which hysteresis loops have more than one strain-range component. To that end, the chapter considers two cases. In one, the relationship between strain range and cyclic life is established from test data. In the other, a rule is required to determine the damage of each concurrent strain and the total damage of the cycle is used to predict creep-fatigue life. The chapter presents several such damage rules and discusses their applicability in different situations.

This chapter discusses the concept of mean stress and explains how it is used in fatigue analysis and design. It begins by examining the stress-strain response of test samples subjected to cyclic forces and strains, noting important features and what they reveal about materials and their fatigue behaviors. It then discusses the challenge of developing hysteresis loops for complex loading patterns and accounting for effects such as ratcheting and stress relaxation. The sections that follow provide a summary of the various ways mean stress is described in the literature and the methods used to calculate or predict its effect on the fatigue life of machine components. The discussion also sheds light on why tensile mean stress is detrimental to both fatigue life and ductility, while compressive mean stress is highly beneficial.

This chapter describes several macroscopic examination techniques, including macroetching, contact printing, fracturing, and lead exudation. It explains how each method is implemented, why it is used, and what it reveals about manufacturing processes, defects, imperfections, and failure mechanisms.

This chapter discusses the basic differences between direct and indirect extrusion, the application of plastic theory, the significance of strain and strain rate, friction, and pressure, and factors such as alloy flow stress and extrusion ratio, which influence the quality of material exiting the die and the amount of force required.

This appendix provides information on temper designations for strain-hardened aluminum, heat treatable aluminum alloys, and annealed aluminum products.

This chapter discusses the stress-strain response of materials, how it is measured, and how it used to set performance expectations. It begins by describing the common tensile test and how it sheds light on the elastic design of structures as well as plasticity and fracture behaviors. It explains how engineering and true stress-strain curves differ, how one is used for design and the other for analyzing metal forming operations. It discusses the effect of holes, fillets, and radii on the distribution of stresses and the use of notch tensile testing to detect metallurgical embrittlement. The chapter also covers compression, shear, and torsion testing, the prediction of yielding, residual stress, and hardness.

The mechanical behavior of a material is its response to an applied load or force. Important mechanical properties are strength, hardness, stiffness, and ductility. This chapter discusses three principal ways in which these properties are tested: tension, compression, and shear. Important tensile properties that can be determined by the tensile test include yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility, resilience, and toughness. The chapter describes the effects of stress concentrations on ductile metals under cyclic loads. Other topics covered include combined stresses, yield criteria, and residual stresses of metals.

This appendix contains abbreviations and symbols related to aluminum alloy castings.

This chapter presents a glossary of foundry terms.