This article provides an overview of how to use the scanning electron microscope (SEM) for imaging integrated circuits. The discussion covers the principles of operation and practical techniques of the SEM. The techniques include sample mounting, sample preparation, sputter coating, sample tilt and image composition, focus and astigmatism correction, dynamic focus and image correction, raster alignment, and adjusting brightness and contrast. The article also provides information on achieving ultra-high resolution in the SEM. It concludes with information on the general characteristics and applications of environmental SEM.

This chapter discusses composite testing procedures, including tension, compression, shear, flexure, and fracture toughness testing as well as adhesive shear, peel, and honeycomb flatwise tension testing. It also discusses specimen preparation, environmental conditioning, and data analysis.

This chapter describes the methods and equipment applicable to metallographic studies and discusses the preparation of specimens for examination by light optical microscopy. Five major operations for preparation of metallographic specimens are discussed: sectioning, mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching. The discussion covers their basic principles, advantages, types, and applications, as well as the equipment setup. The chapter includes tables that list etchants used for microscopic examination. It also provides information on microscopic examination, microphotography, and the effects of grain size on the structural properties of the material.

The ultimate goal of the failure analysis process is to find physical evidence that can identify the root cause of the failure. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has emerged as a powerful tool to characterize subtle defects. This article discusses the sample preparation procedures based on focused ion beam milling used for TEM sample preparation. It describes the principles behind commonly used imaging modes in semiconductor failure analysis and how these operation modes can be utilized to selectively maximize signal from specific beam-specimen interactions to generate useful information about the defect. Various elemental analysis techniques, namely energy dispersive spectroscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy, and energy-filtered TEM, are described using examples encountered in failure analysis. The origin of different image contrast mechanisms, their interpretation, and analytical techniques for composition analysis are discussed. The article also provides information on the use of off-axis electron holography technique in failure analysis.

This chapter provides an overview of the possible mechanisms of failure for heat treated steel components and discusses the techniques for examining fractures, ductile and brittle failures, intergranular failure mechanisms, and fatigue. It begins with a description of the general sources of component failure. This is followed by a section on the stages of a failure analysis, which can proceed one after the other or occur at the same time. These stages of analysis are collection of background data, preliminary visual examination, nondestructive testing, selection and preservation of specimens, mechanical testing, macroexamination, microexamination, metallographic examination, determination of the fracture mechanism, chemical analysis, exemplar testing, and analysis and writing the report. The chapter ends with a discussion on various processes involved in the determination of the fracture mechanism.

This chapter discusses radiography methods using x-rays, gamma rays, and neutrons. It begins with a discussion on the applications and principles of radiography followed by sections providing information on the sources of radiation, classifications, and characteristics of x-ray tubes. Three primary attenuation processes of electromagnetic radiation, namely photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production, are covered. The chapter then discusses the principles of shadow formation, the process involved in the conversion of radiation into a form suitable for observation, and the characteristics of x-ray film. It provides information on various exposure factors in film radiography. The chapter provides a description of the characteristics that differentiate neutron radiography from x-ray or gamma ray radiography. The application of neutron radiography is described in terms of its advantages for improved contrast on low atomic number materials, discrimination between isotopes, or inspection of radioactive specimens.

This chapter is a detailed account of the tensile testing procedure used for evaluating metals and alloys. The discussion covers the stress-strain behavior of metals determined by tensile testing, properties determined from testing, test machines for measuring mechanical properties, and general procedures of tensile testing. Three distinct aspects of standard test methods for tension testing of metallic materials are discussed: test piece preparation, geometry, and material condition; test setup and equipment; and test procedure.

After the fault-tree, a failure-cause identification method has identified potential failure causes and the failure analysis team has prepared a failure mode assessment and assignment (FMA&A). The team knows specifically what to search for when examining components and subassemblies from the failed system. There are numerous techniques and technologies available for examining and analyzing components and subassemblies, which are categorized as follows: optical approaches, dimensional inspection and related approaches, nondestructive test approaches, mechanical and environmental approaches, and chemical and composition analysis for assessing material characteristics. This chapter is a detailed account of the working principle and the steps involved in these techniques and technologies.

After the failure analysis team hypothesizes failure causes, prepares a failure mode assessment and assignment, and evaluates all potential failure causes, it may find in some cases that several causes are still suspect but cannot be confirmed. In this situation, an experiment is necessary to confirm or rule out suspected causes. This chapter discusses two predominant methods for doing this, namely analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Taguchi methods (a more powerful technique based on ANOVA).

This chapter explains how polymeric adhesives are applied to composite as well as metal parts, forming bonded structures. It describes surface preparation practices and techniques, epoxy selection and use, and bonding procedures.

This chapter discusses the various failure analysis techniques for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), focusing on conventional semiconductor manufacturing processes and materials. The discussion begins with a section describing the advances in integration and packaging technologies that have helped drive the further proliferation of MEMS devices in the marketplace. It then shows some examples of the top MEMS applications and quickly discusses the fundamentals of their workings. The next section describes common failure mechanisms along with techniques and challenges in identifying them. The chapter also provides information on the testing of MEMS devices. It covers the two common challenges in sample preparation for MEMS: decapping, or opening up the package, without disturbing the MEMS elements; and removing MEMS elements for analysis. Finally, the chapter discusses the aspects of failure analysis techniques that are of particular interest to MEMS.

Cross-sectioning refers to the process of exposing the internal layers and printed devices below the surface by cleaving through the wafer. This article discusses in detail the steps involved in common cross-sectioning methods. These include sample preparation, scribing, indenting, and cleaving. The article also provides information on options for mounting, handling, and cleaning of samples during and after the cleaving process. The general procedures, tools required, and considerations that need to be taken into account to perform these techniques are considered.

Superalloys, except those with high aluminum and titanium contents, are welded with little difficulty. They can also be successfully brazed. This chapter describes the welding and brazing processes most often used and the factors that must be considered when making application decisions. It discusses the basic concepts of fusion welding and the differences between solid-solution-hardened and precipitation-hardened wrought superalloys. It addresses joint integrity, design, weld-related cracking, and the effect of grain size, precipitates, and contaminants. It covers common fusion welding techniques, defect prevention, fixturing, heat treatments, and general practices, including the use of filler metals. It also discusses several solid-state welding methods, superplastic forming, and transient liquid phase bonding, a type of diffusion welding process. The chapter includes extensive information on brazing processes, atmospheres, filler metals, and surface preparation procedures. It also includes examples of nickel-base welded components for aerospace use.

This chapter discusses the various factors influencing the evaluation of fatigue fracture of nitrided layers. It begins by describing the problems of enhancing the fatigue resistance of machine components. The significance and detailed assessment of the effect of a structural flaw are then explained, using investigations of the effect of variable core conditions on fatigue resistance as an example. This is followed by a discussion on the processes involved in the evaluation of fatigue properties of nitrided steels. The chapter also describes the determination of the fatigue characteristics of nitrided steels after the carbonitriding treatment.

This chapter discusses the operating mechanism, applications, advantages, and limitations of Brinell hardness testing, Rockwell hardness testing, Vickers hardness testing, Scleroscope hardness testing, and microhardness testing. In addition, the general precautions and selection criteria to be considered are described and details of equipment setup provided.

Fabricated powder metallurgy (P/M) parts are evaluated and tested at several stages during manufacturing for part acceptance and process control. The various types of tests included are dimensional evaluation, density measurements, hardness testing, mechanical testing, and nondestructive testing. This chapter is a detailed account of these testing methods. It describes the four most common types of defects in P/M parts, namely ejection cracks, density variations, microlaminations, and poor sintering. The chapter discusses the capabilities and limitations of various nondestructive evaluation methods to flaw detection in P/M parts. The nondestructive evaluation methods covered are mechanical proof testing, metallography, liquid penetrant crack detection, filtered particle crack detection, magnetic particle crack inspection, direct current resistivity testing, x-ray radiography, computed tomography, gamma-ray density determination, and ultrasonic techniques.

Induction heating, in most applications, is used to selectively heat only a portion of the workpiece that requires treatment. This chapter covers the basic principles, features, and metallurgical aspects of induction heating. The discussion includes the conditions required for induction heating and quenching, the use of magnetic flux concentrators to improve the efficiency of surface heating, and the quenching systems used for induction hardening. The discussion also provides information on time-temperature dependence in induction heating, workpiece distortion in induction surface hardening, residual stresses after induction surface hardening and finish grinding, and input and output control of steel for induction surface hardening of gears.