Deformation within a crystal lattice is governed principally by the presence of dislocations, which are two-dimensional defects in the lattice structure. Slip from shear stress is the most common deformation mechanism within crystalline lattices of metallic materials, although deformation of crystal lattices can also occur by other processes such as twinning and, in special circumstances, by the migration of vacant lattice sites. This appendix describes the notation used to specify lattice planes and directions and discusses the mechanisms of slip and twinning as well as the effect of stacking faults.

This appendix provides a detailed overview of the crystal structure of metals. It describes primary bonding mechanisms, space lattices and crystal systems, unit cell parameters, slip systems, and crystallographic planes and directions as well as plastic deformation mechanisms, crystalline imperfections, and the formation of surface or planar defects. It also discusses the use of X-ray diffraction for determining crystal structure.

This chapter familiarizes readers with the methods used to quantify the effects of fatigue on component lifetime and failure. It discusses the development and use of S-N (stress amplitude vs. cycles to failure) curves, the emergence of strain-based approaches to fatigue analysis, and important refinements and modifications. It demonstrates the use of approximate equations, including the method of universal slopes and the four-point correlation technique, which provides reasonable estimates of elastic and plastic lines from information obtained in standard tensile tests. It also discusses high-cycle, low-cycle, and ultra-high cycle fatigue and presents several models that are useful for fatigue life predictions.

This chapter covers the emerging practice of quantitative microscopy and its application in the study of the microstructure of metals. It describes the methods used to quantify structural gradients, volume fraction, grain size and distribution, and other features of interest. It provides examples showing how the various features appear, how they are measured, and how the resulting data are converted into usable form. The chapter also discusses the quantification of fracture morphology and its correlation with material properties and behaviors.

This chapter covers a broad range of low-carbon steels optimized for structural applications. Low-carbon structural steels are generally considered the highest-strength steels that can be welded without undue difficulty, even in the field. They include mild steels, carbon-manganese and niobium- and vanadium-containing steels, and high-strength low-alloy steels. Chapter 5 discusses the composition, microstructure, and properties of these workhorse materials and explains how to identify the cause of production-related issues such as lamellar tearing and ferrite-pearlite banding. It also describes some of the alloying variations that have been developed to improve machinability and the mechanisms by which they work.

This chapter demonstrates the versatility of the strain-range partitioning method and its application to creep-fatigue problems involving complex loading histories. It begins with a derivation showing that it is possible to assess the damage of hysteresis loops combining two or more strain ranges using generic loops based on fundamental data. It then explains how to treat problems involving sequential loading with both healing and damage cycles and presents a general solution for combining two loops with arbitrary amounts of the four strain-range components. The chapter also derives closed-form equations that account for interactions among any number of adjacent loops and can be used, through successive application, to analyze any loading history.

This chapter describes the ferritic microstructures that form in carbon steels under continuous cooling conditions. It begins with a review of the Dubé classification system for crystal morphologies. It then explains how cooling-rate-induced changes involving carbon atom diffusion and the associated rearrangement of iron atoms produce the wide variety of morphologies and microstructures observed in ferrite. The chapter also describes a classification system developed specifically for ferritic microstructures and uses it to compare common forms of ferrite, including polygonal or equiaxed ferrite, Widmanstatten ferrite, quasi-polygonal or massive ferrite, acicular ferrite, and granular ferrite.

This chapter is a compilation of terms and definitions related to corrosion in the petrochemical industry.

This chapter reviews the concepts of fracture mechanics and their application to materials evaluation and the design of cryogenic structures. Emphasis is placed on an explanation of technology, a review of fracture mechanics testing methods, and a discussion on the many factors contributing to the fracture behavior of materials at cryogenic temperatures. Three approaches of elastic-plastic fracture mechanics are covered, namely the crack opening displacement, the J-integral, and the R-curve methods. The chapter also discusses the influence of thermal and metallurgical effects on toughness at low temperatures.

This chapter reviews the fundamentals of stress, strain, and deformation and demonstrates some of the tools and techniques used to analyze how materials and structures respond to tension, compression, bending, and shear. It begins with an overview of the behavior of perfectly elastic and plastic materials and viscous substances. It then describes the stress-strain response of two- and three-dimensional solids, explaining how to determine principle stresses and strains using Mohr’s circle and how to derive equivalent stress and strain using the von Mises relationship. It then goes on to analyze the stress state of load-bearing members, pressurized tubes, and pin-loaded lugs, accounting for the effect of geometric discontinuities, such as cutouts, fillets, and holes, as well as cracks. It also explains how finite element methods are used to solve problems involving complex geometric and loading conditions.

This appendix provides supplemental information on the metallurgical aspects of atomic structure, the use of dislocation theory, heat treatment processes and procedures, important engineering materials and strengthening mechanisms, and the nature of elastic, plastic, and creep strain components. It also provides information on mechanical property and fatigue testing, the use of hysteresis energy to analyze fatigue, a procedure for inverting equations to solve for dependent variables, and a method for dealing with the statistical nature of failure.

Specific heat and thermal expansion are closely related. Following a discussion on thermal expansion theory, methods of measurement techniques are presented along with their advantages and disadvantages. The results of the measurements are then summarized for three classes of materials: metallics, nonmetallics, and composites. Because predicting thermal expansion values for unmeasured or novel materials is useful, the chapter also describes the means of making educated guesses for low-temperature values. A short discussion on how thermal expansion data can be used is followed by a section describing where such data can be found.

Many scientific-technological advances depend critically on solid-state elastic properties, their magnitudes, and their responses to variables like stress and temperature. This chapter provides the definitions and descriptions of elastic constants and emphasizes five aspects of engineering-material solid-state elastic constants: general properties; interrelationships; relationships, especially thermodynamic to other physical properties; changes during cooling from ambient to near-zero temperature; and near-zero-temperature behavior.

Composite systems for cryogenic applications are discussed in this chapter. This chapter emphasizes filamentary-reinforced composites because they are the most widely used composite materials. It begins with a discussion on the approach to designing and fabricating with low-pressure laminate composites. This is followed by a section providing an overview of the materials in modern cryogenic technology. Then, the chapter describes the effect of cryogenic temperatures on materials properties; it also introduces the various joining techniques developed for composite materials. The effects of radiation on the properties of the materials are covered as well as the processes involved in testing laminates at cryogenic temperatures. Finally, the chapter provides information available on concrete aggregate composites.