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When a metal is alloyed with another metal, either substitutional or interstitial solid solutions are usually formed. This chapter discusses the general characteristics of these solutions and the effects of several alloying elements on the yield strength of pure metals. It presents four rules that give a qualitative estimate of the ability of two metals to form substitutional solid solutions: relative size factor, chemical affinity factor, relative valency factor, and lattice type factor. The chapter provides information on alloys that form an ordered structure during heating. It describes the intermediate phases that are formed during solidification between the two extremes of substitutional solid solution on the one hand and intermetallic compound on the other. The chapter concludes with a section on strain aging in low-carbon steels that allows the interstitial atoms to diffuse to the dislocations and again form atmospheres that pin dislocation movement.

This chapter explains the idea of solution theory and the nature of mixed materials. The chapter considers approximation of free energy by the regular solution model and sublattice model. It discusses chemical potential and nonrandom distribution based on the interactions between solute atoms.

In order to understand how the strength of steels is controlled, it is extremely useful to have an elementary understanding of two topics: solutions and phase diagrams. This chapter provides an introduction to these topics with suitable examples.

This appendix lists chemical polishing solutions and procedures used in metallographic sample preparation.

This appendix provides detailed information on the processes and procedures used in electrolytic polishing. It lists important process parameters, including time, temperature, voltage, and current density, as well as the recipes of electrolytic solutions used. The information is presented in tabular form, corresponding to specific metals and their alloys.

This chapter describes the physical characteristics, properties, and behaviors of solid solutions under equilibrium conditions. It begins with a review of a single-component pure metal system and its unary phase diagram. It then examines the solid solution formed by copper and nickel atoms. It discusses the difference between interstitial and substitutional solid solutions and the factors that determine the type of solution that two metals are likely to form. It also addresses the development of intermediate phases, the role of free energy, transformation kinetics, liquid-to-solid and solid-state phase transformations, and the allotropic nature of metals.

This chapter provides readers with worked solutions to more than 25 problems related to compositional impurities and structural defects. The problems deal with important issues and challenges such as the design of low-density steels, the causes and effects of distortion in different crystal structures, the ability to predict the movement of dislocations, the influence of impurities on defects, the relationship between gain size and material properties, the identification of specific types of defects, the selection of compatible metals for vacuum environments, and the effect of twinning planes on stacking sequences. The chapter also includes problems on how the formation of precipitates can produce slip planes and how grain boundaries can act as obstacles to dislocation motion.

This chapter familiarizes readers with the use of Fick’s laws of diffusion in heat treating, coating, and other metallurgical processes. It contains worked solutions to nearly 30 problems requiring the calculation of activation energy, diffusion coefficient, concentration level, surface layer thickness, case depth, and processing time and temperature. The selected problems deal with various types of iron, steel, and nonferrous alloys and processes ranging from aluminizing, chromizing, carburizing, and plasma nitriding to hydrogen dissipation, decarburizing, and oxidation. A few diffusion problems involving single-crystal silicon are also included.

This chapter contains sample problems with worked solutions pertaining to the application of corrosion inhibitors. Correct answers require an understanding of potentiodynamic polarization scan (PDS) curves, the determination of corrosion current and inhibitor efficiency, and the development of a test plan to evaluate the long-term corrosion protection of a potential inhibitor.

This appendix contains sample problems with worked solutions pertaining to the use of binary phase diagrams. The problems require the determination of favorable temperatures and compositions, the amount and composition of phases in an alloy at a given temperature, the amount of a certain phase in different steels, and the microstructure developed in different alloys.