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Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.msisep.t59220129
EISBN: 978-1-62708-259-4
...Abstract Abstract Many of the structural characteristics of steel products are a result of changes that occur during solidification, particularly volume contractions and solute redistribution. This chapter discusses the solidification process and how it affects the quality and behaviors...
Abstract
Many of the structural characteristics of steel products are a result of changes that occur during solidification, particularly volume contractions and solute redistribution. This chapter discusses the solidification process and how it affects the quality and behaviors of steel. It explains how steel shrinks as it solidifies, causing issues such as pipe and voids, and how differences in the solubility of solid and liquid steel lead to compositional heterogeneities or segregation. It describes the dendritic nature of solidification, peritectic and eutectic reactions, microporosity, macro- and microsegregation, and hot cracking, as well as the effects of solidification and remelting on castings, ingots, and continuous cast products. It explains how to determine where defects originate in continuous casters and how to control alumina, sulfide, and nitride inclusions.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.msisep.t59220101
EISBN: 978-1-62708-259-4
... growing have chemical compositions that are not the same as that of the vanishing phase, solute will have to move and redistribute between the phases. Thus, on a qualitative basis, phase transformations are dominated by the balance among the driving force available to create interfaces, counteracting...
Abstract
This chapter describes the phases and constituents present in iron-carbon steels in near-equilibrium conditions. It explains how to use phase diagrams to predict and manage the development of ferrite, austenite, cementite, and pearlite through controlled cooling. It discusses the transformations, grain structure, and properties associated with each phase and identifies the primary stabilizing elements. It includes several micrographs revealing various microstructural features and describes the processing route by which they were achieved. It explains how to estimate the volume fraction of iron-carbon phases in equilibrium and how to determine the amount of each phase that must be present to reach a desired composition. The chapter also discusses the phases associated with hypo- and hyper-eutectoid steels and presents more than a dozen micrographs, identifying important structural features along with cooling conditions and sample preparation procedures.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410163
EISBN: 978-1-62708-265-5
...-Hill Book Company , 1974 10.1007/BF02643923 9.41 Brody H.D. and Flemings M.C. , Solute Redistribution in Dendritic Solidification , Trans. AIME , Vol 236 , 1966 , p 615 – 624 9.42 Fisher R.M. , Speich G.R. , Cuddy L.J. , and Hu H. , Proceedings...
Abstract
Inclusions and chemical segregation are factors in many process-induced failures involving steel parts. Inclusions are nonmetallic compounds introduced during production; segregation is a type of chemical partitioning that occurs during solidification. This chapter discusses the origins of segregation and inclusions and their effect on the mechanical properties and microstructure of steel. It explains how to identify various types of inclusions and characteristic segregation patterns, such as banding. It also describes the effect of hot work processing on solidification structure and the chemical variations produced by interdendritic segregation.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.msisep.t59220193
EISBN: 978-1-62708-259-4
... indicated by the high-order Fe-C-alloying elements phase diagram. Negligible partition (of the substitutional solutes) with thermodynamic equilibrium at the interface (NPLE, negligible partition, local equilibrium). In this case, reconstruction happens without a significant redistribution...
Abstract
Heat treatment is the most common way of altering the mechanical, physical, and even chemical properties of steels. This chapter describes the changes that occur in carbon and low-alloy steels during conventional heat treatments. It explains how austenite decomposition largely defines the final microstructure, and how the associated phase transformations are driven by nucleation and growth processes. It describes diffusionless and diffusive growth mechanisms and provides detailed information on the properties, structure, and behaviors of the transformation products produced, namely martensite and bainite. It also discusses the formation of austenite, the control and measurement of austenitic grain size, the characteristics of ferritic microstructures, and the methods used to classify ferrite morphology.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ssde.t52310201
EISBN: 978-1-62708-286-0
... and resolidification, issues associated with solute redistribution are eliminated. The relatively low temperatures involved essentially eliminate generation of weld fume (see the discussion of safety). Other new welding processes, such as multiple (GTA or GMA) torch welding, laser-assisted GMA or GTA welding, etc...
Abstract
This chapter provides a basis for understanding the influence of stainless steel alloy composition and metallurgy on the welding process, which involves complex dynamics associated with melting, refining, and thermal processing. It begins with an overview of the welding characteristics of the categories of stainless steels, namely austenitic, duplex, ferritic, martensitic, and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. This is followed by a discussion of the selection criteria for materials to be welded. Various welding processes used with stainless steel are then described. The chapter ends with a section on some of the practices to ensure safety and weld quality.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aacppa.t51140055
EISBN: 978-1-62708-335-5
... the collapse and healing of void surfaces formed by hydrogen precipitation during solidification. At elevated temperatures and under increased pressure, precipitated hydrogen in excess of the solubility limit is compressed and repartitioned, or redistributed, resulting in increased structural density...
Abstract
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is a process refinement available to address internal porosity in castings. The HIP process may be used, in particular, for applications requiring very high quality and performance. This chapter discusses the principles, advantages, and disadvantages of HIP. It describes the effect of HIP on tensile properties and on the fatigue performance of aluminum alloy castings. In addition, the chapter discusses the processes involved in radiographic inspection of HIP-processed castings.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.msisep.t59220353
EISBN: 978-1-62708-259-4
... with a water solution of picric acid with a surfactant agent (sodium tridecyl benzene sulfonate), proportions not informed (reactant is similar to Bechet-Beaujard). As in the case of Oberhoffer etchant ( Fig. 8.38, in Chapter 8, “Solidification, Segregation, and Nonmetallic Inclusions,” in this book...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the effects of hot working on the structure and properties of steel. It explains how working steels at high temperatures promotes diffusion, which helps close cavities and pores, and how it changes the shape and distribution of segregates, offsetting their effect. It describes the effect of hot working on nonmetallic inclusions and the many properties influenced by them. It discusses the recrystallization mechanism by which hot working produces microstructural changes and explains how to control it by adjusting temperature, degree of reduction, and cooling rates. It describes special cases of segregation, including banding and why it occurs, and the application of closed die forging. The chapter also presents several examples of hot working defects, including forging laps, cracks, and overheated or burned steel.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mmfi.t69540373
EISBN: 978-1-62708-309-6
... can be either isotropic or orthotropic. The local stresses in the vicinity of the hole have been raised above the nominal level due to redistribution of load paths. The problem also involves whether the hole is inside a sheet of infinite width, or finite width, and whether or not a close-form solution...
Abstract
This appendix presents a close-form solution to determine the stress distribution around a hole of any shape or size in a strip of any material of any width. It also compares the close-form equation to classical solutions and the results of finite element analysis, demonstrating near perfect matches in each case.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pdub.t53420339
EISBN: 978-1-62708-310-2
... of coarsening increases with temperature. Ostwald ripening is the mechanism by which smaller precipitates dissolve, and the solute is redistributed to larger, stable precipitates. Smaller particles have a higher free energy due to increased pressure as a result of their high surface curvature. Reversion occurs...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the basic principles of precipitation hardening, an important strengthening mechanism in nonferrous alloys as well as stainless steel. It begins with a detailed review of the theory of precipitation hardening, then describes its application to aluminum alloys and nickel-base superalloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.piht2.t55050293
EISBN: 978-1-62708-311-9
... through a refractometer and/or viscosity. Figure 15.1 illustrates the viscosity/concentration relationship, with the multiple curves reflecting the flexibility in temperature at which the viscosity determination can be made. Because the viscosity of the quenchant solution is largely independent of other...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 1999
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.lmcs.t66560283
EISBN: 978-1-62708-291-4
...; they are not effective for the other sensitizing elements. The most effective of these reagents is a solution of picric acid in ethyl ether saturated with zephiran chloride. An example of the grooves developed by this etchant in an embrittled steel is given in Fig. 10.14(a) , which can be compared with the result...
Abstract
This chapter describes the effects that can be observed by light microscopy when a steel in the hardened condition, consisting of martensite and possibly some retained austenite, is heated at subcritical temperatures. It includes micrographs that illustrate the effect of carbide precipitation, the decomposition of retained austenite, and recovery and recrystallization. It also includes images that reveal the characteristic structures produced by tempering medium-carbon hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels as well as the effects of plastic deformation, austenitic grain size, and temper brittleness.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240177
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
.... The cementite lamellae must first dissolve and then redistribute the carbon as spheroids, whereas cementite spheroids can form directly from martensite. Fig. 11.5 Microstructure of spheroidized steel. Source: Ref 3 Steels are hardened by austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering...
Abstract
One of the primary advantages of steels is their ability to attain high strengths through heat treatment while still retaining some degree of ductility. Heat treatments can be used to not only harden steels but also to provide other useful combinations of properties, such as ductility, formability, and machinability. This chapter discusses various heat treatment processes, namely annealing, stress relieving, normalizing, spheroidizing, and hardening by austenitizing, quenching and tempering. It also discusses two types of interrupted quenching processes: martempering and austempering. The chapter concludes with a brief section on temper embrittlement.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2007
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.smnm.t52140107
EISBN: 978-1-62708-264-8
... In the initial discussion of phase diagrams in Chapter 2, “Solutions and Phase Diagrams,” the salt-water system was chosen to illustrate the major ideas. Figure 2.2 illustrates that the freezing temperature of water-salt solutions decreases as the percent salt in the liquid increases, but it decreases only...
Abstract
The first step in the hardening of steel is getting it hot enough to form austenite, from which martensite can form upon quenching. Not all steels have the same austenitization requirements, however. High-carbon wear-resistant steels, such as bearing and tool steels, require the presence of carbides during austenitization; plain carbon and low-alloy steels do not. This chapter describes the austenitization process used in each of the two cases, namely single-phase austenitization (the accepted method for plain carbon low-alloy steels) and two-phase austenitization (required for high-carbon steels). It also addresses process-specific issues, explaining how the presence of carbides (in the two-phase process) produces significant changes, and how homogenization and austenite grain growth influence the single-phase process.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1989
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.dmlahtc.t60490059
EISBN: 978-1-62708-340-9
... and extent of stress redistribution can be made using detailed nonlinear finite-element analysis or can be estimated by simple numerical methods such as those proposed by Bailey ( Ref 65 ). The long-term (i.e., t → ∞) relaxed steady-state stress distributions according to the Bailey solution are given...
Abstract
This chapter provides a detailed overview of the creep behavior of metals and how to account for it when determining the remaining service life of components. It begins with a review of creep curves, explaining how they are plotted and what they reveal about the operating history, damage mechanisms, and structural integrity of the test sample. In the sections that follow, it discusses the effects of stress and temperature on creep rate, the difference between diffusional and dislocation creep, and the use of time-temperature-stress parameters for data extrapolation. It explains how to deal with time dependent deformation in design, how to estimate cumulative damage under changing conditions, and how to assess the effect of multiaxial stress based on uniaxial test data. It also includes information on rupture ductility, creep fracture, and creep-crack growth and their effect on component life and performance.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mmfi.t69540001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-309-6
... of structural analysis. For handbook solutions, a library of stress formulas is available in Ref 1.6 . This section presents a few simple yet typical cases. The sections that follow present some advanced structural analysis concepts. Because stress analysis procedures are case specific, generalized solutions...
Abstract
This chapter reviews the fundamentals of stress, strain, and deformation and demonstrates some of the tools and techniques used to analyze how materials and structures respond to tension, compression, bending, and shear. It begins with an overview of the behavior of perfectly elastic and plastic materials and viscous substances. It then describes the stress-strain response of two- and three-dimensional solids, explaining how to determine principle stresses and strains using Mohr’s circle and how to derive equivalent stress and strain using the von Mises relationship. It then goes on to analyze the stress state of load-bearing members, pressurized tubes, and pin-loaded lugs, accounting for the effect of geometric discontinuities, such as cutouts, fillets, and holes, as well as cracks. It also explains how finite element methods are used to solve problems involving complex geometric and loading conditions.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.fibtca.t52430027
EISBN: 978-1-62708-253-2
... of redistribution of carbon atoms in the austenite matrix. Rather, it is accomplished by cooperative movement of atoms by a shear mechanism (i.e., displacement mechanism). Martensite is a supersaturated, interstitial solid solution of carbon in α-iron. It is an extremely hard and brittle phase. The carbon content...
Abstract
This chapter describes the metallurgy, composition, and properties of steels and other alloys. It provides information on the atomic structure of metals, the nature of alloy phases, and the mechanisms involved in phase transformations, including time-temperature effects and the role of diffusion, nucleation, and growth. It also discusses alloying, heat treating, and defect formation and briefly covers condenser tube materials.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.fdsm.t69870179
EISBN: 978-1-62708-344-7
... . Many different methods can be used to determine the elastic stress and strain concentration factors. Among them is the analytical procedure of solving the classic equations of elasticity. It is rare, however, that exact solutions can be obtained. Mostly, they are approximate solutions derived...
Abstract
This chapter describes how notches affect the load-carrying capacity and fatigue life of materials under cyclic loads. It explains that stresses and strains can be three to four times higher in the vicinity of a notch, greatly accelerating fatigue damage. It discusses the use of stress concentration factors and how they are determined for the general case and for specific geometries, materials, and surface conditions. The chapter covers both elastic and plastic fatigue behaviors as well as a wide range of methods. It also explains how small nuances in loading can introduce tensile or compressive stress in the hysteresis loops causing variations in fatigue life as large as 50:1 depending on where the transition in fatigue behavior occurs.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 1999
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.lmcs.t66560039
EISBN: 978-1-62708-291-4
... . Fig. 4.19 (Part 1) Quench aging effects in ferrite. Rimming grade. 0.03C-0.005Si-0.43Mn (wt%). This series is continued in Fig. 4.20 . (a) Heated at 800 °C, cooled at 100 °C/h, solution treated at 700 °C for 1 h, water quenched. 105 HV. 1% nital. 250×. (b) Heated at 800 °C, cooled at 100 °C/h...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the composition and structure of low-carbon irons and steels, particularly those used in the production of hot-rolled strip. It describes the manufacturing process from the production of ingots to coiling, and it explains how finishing and coiling temperatures affect ferritic grain size and the distribution of cementite particles. It also discusses subsequent processing, including cold rolling and annealing, and the parameters with the greatest impact on grain size and microstructure. In addition, it describes the production of enameling irons, the benefits of high-temperature heat treatments, and the effects of quench and strain aging.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1999
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.cmp.t66770099
EISBN: 978-1-62708-337-9
... to fine-grained steels Refined; excess carbide not dissolved; distortion minimized Unrefined; soft and machinable B: Best adapted to fine-grained steels Slightly coarsened; some solution of excess carbide Partially refined; stronger and tougher than A C: Best adapted to fine-grained steels...
Abstract
This chapter is a study of the microstructure of case-hardened steels. It explains what can be learned by examining grain size, microcracking, nonmetallic inclusions, and the effects of microsegregation. It identifies information-rich features, describing their ideal characteristics, the likely cause of variations observed, and their effect on mechanical properties and behaviors. The discussions throughout the chapter are aided by the use of images, diagrams, data plots, and tables.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.msisep.t59220403
EISBN: 978-1-62708-259-4
... or discontinuous yield is mostly associated with the interaction between dislocations and interstitial solutes, such as carbon and nitrogen. The interaction between their stress fields leads, when there is sufficient mobility for the interstitial atoms, to a concentration of these solutes in the region just below...
Abstract
With cold work, mechanical strength (measured either by yield strength or ultimate tensile strength) increases and ductility (measured by elongation, reduction of area, or fracture toughness) normally decreases. This chapter discusses the mechanisms that produce these changes and the factors that influence them. It explains how cold working increases dislocation density and how that affects the stress-strain characteristics of steel, particularly the onset of deformation. It describes the effects of deformation on ferrite, austenite, cementite, and pearlite, and how to optimize their microstructure for various applications through controlled deformation. It also provides information on subcritical annealing, the examination and control of texture, the use of optical microscopy to monitor the effects of recrystallization, and the effect of cold working on threaded fasteners, nails, and filaments used to manufacture cords.