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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ciktmse.t56020001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-389-8
... and their relevance in design and manufacturing. It begins with a review of compositional impurities, the physical arrangement of atoms in solid solution, and the factors that determine maximum solubility. It then describes different types of structural imperfections, including point, line, and planar defects...
Abstract
Alloying, heat treating, and work hardening are widely used to control material properties, and though they take different approaches, they all focus on imperfections of one type or other. This chapter provides readers with essential background on these material imperfections and their relevance in design and manufacturing. It begins with a review of compositional impurities, the physical arrangement of atoms in solid solution, and the factors that determine maximum solubility. It then describes different types of structural imperfections, including point, line, and planar defects, and how they respond to applied stresses and strains. The chapter makes extensive use of graphics to illustrate crystal lattice structures and related concepts such as vacancies and interstitial sites, ion migration, volume expansion, antisite defects, edge and screw dislocations, slip planes, twinning planes, and dislocation passage through precipitates. It also points out important structure-property correlations.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 April 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.bpapp.t59290035
EISBN: 978-1-62708-319-5
... for polyethylene glycol Table 3.11 Data for polyethylene glycol Property Value Molecular weight, g/mol 3015–3685 Density at 60 °C (140 °F), g/cm 3 1.093 Melting range, °C (°F) 53–57 (127–135) Solubility in water at 20 °C (70 °F), wt% 67 Viscosity at 100 °C (212 °F), Pa ∙ s 0.09...
Abstract
Generally, binders consist of at least three ingredients: a backbone to provide strength (compounds such as polyethylene, polypropylene, ethylene vinyl acetate, and polystyrene); a filler, such as polyacetal and paraffin wax, to occupy space between particles; and additives, such as stearates, stearic acid, or magnesium stearate, as well as phosphates and sulfonates, to adjust viscosity, lubricate tooling, disperse particles, or induce binder wetting of the powder. In the case of binders deposited via ink jet printing, the binder contains solvents to lower the viscosity for easier jetting. The chapter provides a detailed description of these constituents. The requirements of a binder as well as the factors determining the physical and thermal properties of polymers are discussed. Then, two factors associated with solvation of polymers, namely solubility parameter and wetting, are covered. The chapter ends with information on the specification of polymers used in binders.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pht2.t51440009
EISBN: 978-1-62708-262-4
... to discussion on the iron-carbon alloy system. The chapter also describes the effect of carbon on the constitution of iron and of the solubility of carbon in iron. It provides information on transformations and on the classification of steels by carbon content. The chapter ends with a discussion on the effect...
Abstract
Steel is an important material because of its tremendous flexibility in metal working and heat treating to produce a variety of mechanical, physical, and chemical properties. The purpose of this chapter is to present the metallurgical principles of heat treatment of steel in a generalized manner. The chapter provides a discussion on the constitution of commercially pure iron, subsequently leading to discussion on the iron-carbon alloy system. The chapter also describes the effect of carbon on the constitution of iron and of the solubility of carbon in iron. It provides information on transformations and on the classification of steels by carbon content. The chapter ends with a discussion on the effect of time on transformation and on the use of time-temperature-transformation diagrams.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.cub.t66910021
EISBN: 978-1-62708-250-1
.... The characteristics include: conductivity of the solution, acidity and alkalinity, oxidizing power, degree of ionization, and solubility in the solution. These characteristics, in combination with the characteristics of the metal, will determine the corrosion behavior of a metal/environment combination. The chapter...
Abstract
This chapter addresses the basic concepts important to understanding corrosion of metals. It begins with an overview of the three types of behaviors that a metal exhibits when immersed in an environment and of the four requirements of a corrosion cell. The chapter then covers the important characteristics of metals with respect to corrosion, namely the metallurgical characteristics, the inherent tendency to corrode, and the tendency to form insoluble corrosion products. The important characteristics of aqueous solutions with respect to corrosion are then addressed. The characteristics include: conductivity of the solution, acidity and alkalinity, oxidizing power, degree of ionization, and solubility in the solution. These characteristics, in combination with the characteristics of the metal, will determine the corrosion behavior of a metal/environment combination. The chapter concludes with a section on the determination of corrosion rates and corrosion rate allowances.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ascaam.t59190vii
EISBN: 978-1-62708-296-9
... provides solubility data and maps out the topics covered in subsequent chapters in the book. aluminum-silicon alloys intermetallic phases microstructure THE GENERAL TREND to conserve natural resources makes aluminum alloys suitable for construction materials. Aluminum alloys very often...
Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the microstructure-property relationships associated with aluminum-silicon alloys. It includes information on commercial designations and grades, phase compositions, solidification paths, alloying elements, and intermetallic phases. It also provides solubility data and maps out the topics covered in subsequent chapters in the book.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.msisep.t59220129
EISBN: 978-1-62708-259-4
... of steel. It explains how steel shrinks as it solidifies, causing issues such as pipe and voids, and how differences in the solubility of solid and liquid steel lead to compositional heterogeneities or segregation. It describes the dendritic nature of solidification, peritectic and eutectic reactions...
Abstract
Many of the structural characteristics of steel products are a result of changes that occur during solidification, particularly volume contractions and solute redistribution. This chapter discusses the solidification process and how it affects the quality and behaviors of steel. It explains how steel shrinks as it solidifies, causing issues such as pipe and voids, and how differences in the solubility of solid and liquid steel lead to compositional heterogeneities or segregation. It describes the dendritic nature of solidification, peritectic and eutectic reactions, microporosity, macro- and microsegregation, and hot cracking, as well as the effects of solidification and remelting on castings, ingots, and continuous cast products. It explains how to determine where defects originate in continuous casters and how to control alumina, sulfide, and nitride inclusions.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mnm2.t53060013
EISBN: 978-1-62708-261-7
... 256.00 10 7936.00 512.00 Source: Ref 2.6 Binary alloys exhibiting complete solid solubility Table 2.5 Binary alloys exhibiting complete solid solubility Elements Radius ratio Closeness of position in EM series, (a) V Similarity of valence Relative position in periodic chart...
Abstract
This chapter introduces many of the key concepts on which metallurgy is based. It begins with an overview of the atomic nature of matter and the forces that link atoms together in crystal lattice structures. It discusses the types of imperfections (or defects) that occur in the crystal structure of metals and their role in mechanical deformation, annealing, precipitation, and diffusion. It describes the concept of solid solutions and the effect of temperature on solubility and phase transformations. The chapter also discusses the formation of solidification structures, the use of equilibrium phase diagrams, the role of enthalpy and Gibb’s free energy in chemical reactions, and a method for determining phase compositions along the solidus and liquidus lines.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410017
EISBN: 978-1-62708-265-5
... concepts, including solubility, critical temperature, dislocation defects, slip, and diffusion, and how they affect the microstructure, properties, and behaviors of steel. austenite cementite crystal imperfection crystal structure diffusion ferrite iron-carbon equilibrium diagram...
Abstract
This chapter describes the iron-carbon phase diagram, its modification by alloying elements, and the effect of carbon on the chemistry and crystallography of austenite, ferrite, and cementite found in Fe-C alloys and steels. It also lays the groundwork for understanding important metallurgical concepts, including solubility, critical temperature, dislocation defects, slip, and diffusion, and how they affect the microstructure, properties, and behaviors of steel.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.tpmpa.t54480031
EISBN: 978-1-62708-318-8
... grain morphology. It then discusses the concept of solid solutions, the difference between substitutional and interstitial solid solubility, the effect of alloying elements, and the development of intermetallic phases. The chapter also covers the construction and use of binary and ternary phase diagrams...
Abstract
This chapter describes the structures, phases, and phase transformations observed in metals and alloys as they solidify and cool to lower temperatures. It begins with a review of the solidification process, covering nucleation, grain growth, and the factors that influence grain morphology. It then discusses the concept of solid solutions, the difference between substitutional and interstitial solid solubility, the effect of alloying elements, and the development of intermetallic phases. The chapter also covers the construction and use of binary and ternary phase diagrams and describes the helpful information they contain.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.tm.t52320091
EISBN: 978-1-62708-357-7
... on the solubility curve and the binodal curve. binodal curve heterogeneous equilibrium phase diagrams solubility curve A phase diagram has been called “a map” for materials. This “map” consisted only of the experimental data in former days, but in recent years an estimation of complicated data...
Abstract
This chapter explains the significance of the phase diagram and its use in the development of new materials. The chapter describes the basic rules of heterogeneous equilibrium, presents a comparison between liquidus line and solidus line, and provides information on the solubility curve and the binodal curve.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2007
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.htcma.t52080423
EISBN: 978-1-62708-304-1
.... Source: Ref 8 Fig. 16.8 Solubilities of some metals in liquid mercury. Note: Columbium is the former (pre-1968) name of niobium. Source: Ref 40 Fig. 16.9 (a) Fractured studs due to cadmium-induced LME during service at 315 °C (600 °F), and (b) optical micrograph showing...
Abstract
Liquid metals are frequently used as a heat-transfer medium because of their high thermal conductivities and low vapor pressures. Containment materials used in such heat-transfer systems are subject to molten metal corrosion as well as other problems. This chapter reviews the corrosion behavior of alloys in molten aluminum, zinc, lead, lithium, sodium, magnesium, mercury, cadmium, tin, antimony, and bismuth. It also discusses the problem of liquid metal embrittlement, explaining how it is caused by low-melting-point metals during brazing, welding, and heat treating operations.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... a ≠ b ≠ c α = γ = 90° ≠ β Orthorhombic a ≠ b ≠ c α = β = γ = 90° Tetragonal a = b ≠ c α = β = γ = 90° Hexagonal a = b ≠ c α = β = 90°, γ = 120° Rhombohedral a = b = c α = β = γ ≠ 90° Cubic a = b = c α = β = γ = 90° Binary alloys exhibiting complete solid solubility...
Abstract
The building block of all matter, including metals, is the atom. This chapter initially provides information on atomic bonding and the crystal structure of metals and alloys, followed by a description of three crystal lattice structures of metals: face-centered cubic, hexagonal close-packed, and body-centered cubic. It then describes the four main divisions of crystal defects, namely point defects, line defects, planar defects, and volume defects. The chapter provides information on grain boundaries of metals, processes involved in atomic diffusion, and key properties of a solid solution. It also explains the aspects of a phase diagram that shows what phase or phases are present in the alloy under conditions of thermal equilibrium. Finally, a discussion on the applications of equilibrium phase diagrams is presented.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 July 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.bcp.t52230179
EISBN: 978-1-62708-298-3
... and pure silver is at 880 °C (1615 °F) and a composition of approximately 10.5 at.% Be. The maximum solid solubility of silver in beryllium is approximately 0.7 at.%. Fig. 15.1 Binary phase diagram of beryllium-silver. Source: Okamoto and Tanner 1987e Figure 15.2 . This system is a simple...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ems.t53730011
EISBN: 978-1-62708-283-9
... beer with ice contains three phases: solid ice, a water-based solution, and bubbles of carbon dioxide. A material may contain more than one solid phase, each with a different crystal structure, or one or more mutually insoluble liquid phases (for example, oil and water). All gases are mutually soluble...
Abstract
Phases are distinct states of aggregation of matter and one of the primary leverage points for understanding and applying materials. This chapter discusses the phase nature of metals and alloys, the concept of solid solutions, and the use of phase diagrams. It also describes some of the metallurgical effects of freezing or solidification, including the segregation of solutes and the formation of metal glasses.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.cfap.t69780323
EISBN: 978-1-62708-281-5
... = a + V 1 RT ( δ p − δ s ) 2 where a is a constant, V 1 is the molar volume of the solvent, R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, and δ p and δ s are the solubility parameters (that is, square roots of the cohesive energy densities...
Abstract
The susceptibility of plastics to environmental failure, when exposed to organic chemicals, limits their use in many applications. Environmental factors can be classified into two categories: chemical and physical effects. This article discusses the effects of these environmental factors on the mechanical properties of plastics.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410133
EISBN: 978-1-62708-265-5
.... , Solubility of Gaseous Nitrogen in Gamma Iron and the Effect of Alloying Constituents—Aluminum Nitride Precipitation , Trans. AIME , Vol 191 , 1951 , p 1174 – 1179 10.1007/BF03397430 8.31 Melloy G.F. , Austenite Grain Size—Its Control and Effects , Metals Engineering Institute, American...
Abstract
Austenite is the key to the versatility of steel and the controllable nature of its properties. It is the parent phase of pearlite, martensite, bainite, and ferrite. This chapter discusses the importance of austenite, beginning with the influence of austenitic grain size and how to accurately measure it. It then describes the principles of austenite formation and grain growth and examines several time-temperature-austenitizing diagrams representing various alloying and processing conditions. The chapter concludes with a discussion on hot deformation and subsequent recrystallization.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.cfap.t69780305
EISBN: 978-1-62708-281-5
... by the cohesive energy density (CED) ( Ref 16 ): CED + Δ E v V 1 where Δ E v is the molar energy of vaporization, and V 1 is the molar volume of the liquid. The square root of the CED parameter, called the solubility parameter, δ, is particularly useful. A liquid...
Abstract
This article discusses the molecular mechanism, environmental criteria, and material optimization of environmental stress crazing (ESC) in glassy thermoplastics, polyethylenes, and nylons. In addition, it provides information on various tests used to determine relative susceptibility to ESC, namely constant tensile load testing and constant-strain testing.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240041
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
... and then retain their complete solubility in each other on freezing to form a series of alloys. The improvement in strength properties in these alloys is shown in Fig. 3.1 . Note that the yield strength, the tensile strength, and the hardness are improved as a result of alloying. While the ductility is reduced...
Abstract
When a metal is alloyed with another metal, either substitutional or interstitial solid solutions are usually formed. This chapter discusses the general characteristics of these solutions and the effects of several alloying elements on the yield strength of pure metals. It presents four rules that give a qualitative estimate of the ability of two metals to form substitutional solid solutions: relative size factor, chemical affinity factor, relative valency factor, and lattice type factor. The chapter provides information on alloys that form an ordered structure during heating. It describes the intermediate phases that are formed during solidification between the two extremes of substitutional solid solution on the one hand and intermetallic compound on the other. The chapter concludes with a section on strain aging in low-carbon steels that allows the interstitial atoms to diffuse to the dislocations and again form atmospheres that pin dislocation movement.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pht2.t51440231
EISBN: 978-1-62708-262-4
.... At a given aging temperature, the hardness of aluminum-copper alloys increases to a maximum, then drops off. Source: Ref 4 Fig. 5 Beryllium-copper phase diagram. The alpha phase holds about 1.55% Be at 605 °C (1121 °F) and about 2.7% at 865 °C (1590 °F). Decreasing solubility of the beryllium...
Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of heat treating of nonferrous alloys. First, a brief discussion on the effects of cold work and annealing on nonferrous alloys is presented. This is followed by a discussion on the mechanisms involved in the more commonly used heat treating procedures for hardening or strengthening, namely solution treating and aging. Examples are presented for heat treating of two commercially important nonferrous alloys, one from the aluminum-copper system and one from the copper-beryllium system.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.fibtca.t52430379
EISBN: 978-1-62708-253-2
... contains a high amount of insoluble impurities and a lesser amount of soluble impurities, whereas ground water contains less insoluble impurities but more soluble impurities. As rainwater percolates into the soil, the water becomes loaded with dissolved impurities leached from the surface and subsurface...
Abstract
Water chemistry is a factor in nearly all boiler tube failures. It contributes to the formation of scale, biofilms, and sludge, determines deposition rates, and drives the corrosion process. This chapter explains how water chemistry is managed in boilers and describes the effect of impurities and feedwater parameters on high-pressure boiler components. It discusses deposition and scaling, types of corrosion, and carryover, a condition that occurs when steam becomes contaminated with droplets of boiler water. The chapter also covers water treatment procedures, including filtration, chlorination, ion exchange, demineralization, reverse osmosis, caustic and chelant treatment, oxygen scavenging, and colloidal, carbonate, phosphate, and sodium aluminate conditioning.