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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... diagrams face-centered cubic grain boundaries hexagonal close-packed line defects planar defects point defects solid solution solubility limit volume defects THE BUILDING BLOCK of all matter, including metals, is the atom, which means “unable to be cut” in Greek. The concept of the atom...
Abstract
The building block of all matter, including metals, is the atom. This chapter initially provides information on atomic bonding and the crystal structure of metals and alloys, followed by a description of three crystal lattice structures of metals: face-centered cubic, hexagonal close-packed, and body-centered cubic. It then describes the four main divisions of crystal defects, namely point defects, line defects, planar defects, and volume defects. The chapter provides information on grain boundaries of metals, processes involved in atomic diffusion, and key properties of a solid solution. It also explains the aspects of a phase diagram that shows what phase or phases are present in the alloy under conditions of thermal equilibrium. Finally, a discussion on the applications of equilibrium phase diagrams is presented.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pht2.t51440009
EISBN: 978-1-62708-262-4
... generalized manner. The chapter provides a discussion on the constitution of commercially pure iron, subsequently leading to discussion on the iron-carbon alloy system. The chapter also describes the effect of carbon on the constitution of iron and of the solubility of carbon in iron. It provides information...
Abstract
Steel is an important material because of its tremendous flexibility in metal working and heat treating to produce a variety of mechanical, physical, and chemical properties. The purpose of this chapter is to present the metallurgical principles of heat treatment of steel in a generalized manner. The chapter provides a discussion on the constitution of commercially pure iron, subsequently leading to discussion on the iron-carbon alloy system. The chapter also describes the effect of carbon on the constitution of iron and of the solubility of carbon in iron. It provides information on transformations and on the classification of steels by carbon content. The chapter ends with a discussion on the effect of time on transformation and on the use of time-temperature-transformation diagrams.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pht2.t51440231
EISBN: 978-1-62708-262-4
... heating operations. First, the alloy is heated to a temperature just below (say, at least 28 °C, or 50 °F) its solidus (beginning of melting) temperature. Holding time at temperature depends on the solubility of the various phases and whether the alloy is wrought or cast. It must be considered that the...
Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of heat treating of nonferrous alloys. First, a brief discussion on the effects of cold work and annealing on nonferrous alloys is presented. This is followed by a discussion on the mechanisms involved in the more commonly used heat treating procedures for hardening or strengthening, namely solution treating and aging. Examples are presented for heat treating of two commercially important nonferrous alloys, one from the aluminum-copper system and one from the copper-beryllium system.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ssde.t52310001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-286-0
... for the primary impurities oxygen and sulfur. A third common impurity, phosphorus, is not so easily removed and must be excluded from raw materials to be kept under control. In stainless steel, carbon and nitrogen can be detrimental impurities. Both are quite soluble in molten iron-chromium alloys...
Abstract
Metallurgy, as discussed in this chapter, focuses on phases normally encountered in stainless steels and their characteristics. This chapter describes the thermodynamics and the three basic phases of stainless steels: ferrite, austenite, and martensite. Formation of the principal intermetallic phases is also covered. In addition, the chapter provides information on carbides, nitrides, precipitation hardening, and inclusions.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pdub.t53420073
EISBN: 978-1-62708-310-2
... of these systems are completely miscible (completely soluble in each other) in the solid form, thus forming a continuous solid solution. When this occurs in a binary system, the phase diagram usually has the general appearance of that shown in Fig. 4.2 . The diagram consists of two single-phase...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the unique characteristics of isomorphous alloy systems. It begins with a review of the naming conventions for multi-component systems and the construction of a three-dimensional phase diagram for a two-component alloy system. It explains how phase diagrams can be constructed from time-temperature cooling curves and how they can be used to predict the phases present, their chemical compositions, and relative amounts. It also shows how phase diagrams can be modified to account for nonequilibrium cooling conditions.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aub.t61170432
EISBN: 978-1-62708-297-6
... allowed in AM60A than in AM60B. Therefore, AM60B has better saltwater corrosion resistance than AM60A. Manganese content in magnesium die-casting alloys varies from one alloy to another, depending on the mutual solubilities of iron and manganese in the presence of other alloying elements. A basic...
Abstract
This article examines the composition and properties of magnesium and its alloys. It discusses alloy and temper designations, applications and product forms, and commercial alloy systems, and explains how alloying elements affect physical and mechanical properties, processing characteristics, and corrosion behaviors.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pdub.t53420015
EISBN: 978-1-62708-310-2
... of alloying elements. In the case of high-temperature superalloys, as many as ten alloying elements may used to obtain the desired performance. The metals nickel and copper completely dissolve in each other in the liquid state and then retain their complete solubility in each other on freezing to...
Abstract
This chapter describes the physical characteristics, properties, and behaviors of solid solutions under equilibrium conditions. It begins with a review of a single-component pure metal system and its unary phase diagram. It then examines the solid solution formed by copper and nickel atoms. It discusses the difference between interstitial and substitutional solid solutions and the factors that determine the type of solution that two metals are likely to form. It also addresses the development of intermediate phases, the role of free energy, transformation kinetics, liquid-to-solid and solid-state phase transformations, and the allotropic nature of metals.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ssde.t52310069
EISBN: 978-1-62708-286-0
... solubility of nitrogen appreciably. This permitted even higher levels of total alloying to be achieved. This was exploited in the alloys UNS S34565 and S32654, which contain 3 to 6% manganese and about 0.50% nitrogen. The PRENs of these alloys are over 50, which gives them a critical pitting temperature...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the compositions, mechanical properties, phase structure, stabilization, corrosion resistance, and advantages of austenitic stainless steels. Austenitic alloys are classified and reviewed in three groups: (1) lean alloys, such as 201 and 301, which are generally used when high strength or high formability is the main objective; (2) chromium nickel alloys used for high temperature oxidation resistance; and (3) chromium, molybdenum, nickel, and nitrogen alloys used for applications where corrosion resistance is the main objective.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.stg2.t61280189
EISBN: 978-1-62708-267-9
...;90% tungsten carbide, balance cobalt). Modification of tungsten carbide tools with the addition of 0.5 to 4% tantalum carbide has been beneficial in improving abrasion resistance. Titanium carbide tools are not applicable for superalloys, because of the high solubility of titanium carbide in nickel...
Abstract
The qualities that make superalloys excellent engineering materials also make them difficult to machine. This chapter discusses the challenges involved in machining superalloys and the factors that determine machinability. It addresses material removal rates, cutting tool materials, tool life, and practical issues such as set up time, tool changes, and production scheduling. It describes several machining processes, including turning, boring, planing, trepanning, shaping, broaching, drilling, tapping, thread milling, and grinding. It also provides information on toolholders, fixturing, cutting and grinding fluids, and tooling modifications.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pdub.t53420429
EISBN: 978-1-62708-310-2
... temperatures in the liquid melt, molecular hydrogen decomposes into atomic hydrogen that dissolves in the metal. The solubility of hydrogen in liquid metals increases sharply with temperature, as shown in Fig. B.12 for nickel and iron. If the hydrogen is not removed prior to solidification, the large...
Abstract
The solidification process has a major influence on the microstructure and mechanical properties of metal casting as well as wrought products. This appendix covers the fundamentals of solidification. It discusses the formation of solidification structures, the characteristics of planar, cellular, and dendritic growth, the basic freezing sequence for an alloy casting, and the variations in cooling rate, heat flow, and grain morphology in different areas of the mold. It also describes the types of segregation that occur during freezing, the effect of solidification rate on secondary dendrite arm spacing, and the factors that contribute to porosity and shrinkage.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 May 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hma.t59250047
EISBN: 978-1-62708-287-7
... heterogeneous substances.” It received very little notice in the field of science and none in metallurgy. FIG. 4.2 Josiah Willard Gibbs developed the theory for systems that were not mutually soluble, that is, that had more than one phase present at equilibrium. However, a generation later, Dutch...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aub.t61170351
EISBN: 978-1-62708-297-6
... eutectic system with limited terminal solubility and is the basis for the 4 xx.x alloys. Metallographic structures of the pure components and of several intermediate compositions show typical morphologies. The intermediate compositions are mixtures of aluminum containing ~1% Si in solid solution as the...
Abstract
This article discusses the composition, structures, properties, and behaviors of aluminum alloys and explains how they correspond to specific alloying elements. It begins with an overview of the general characteristics of wrought and cast aluminum alloys, the four-digit classification system by which they are defined, and the applications for which they are suited. It then explains how primary alloying elements, second-phase constituents, and impurities affect yield strength, phase formation, and grain size and how they induce structural changes that help refine certain alloys. The article also explains how primary alloying elements affect corrosion and wear behaviors and how they influence fabrication processes such as forming, forging, welding, brazing, and soldering.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310029
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
...) iron. The existence of these two phases, along with carbon alloying, is fundamental in the heat treatment of steel. In addition to the allotropy of iron, the strengthening of steel by heat treatment also depends on the difference in solubility of carbon in ferrite and austenite. Solid solubility is...
Abstract
The existence of austenite and ferrite, along with carbon alloying, is fundamental in the heat treatment of steel. In view of the importance of structure and its formation to heat treatment, this chapter describes the various microstructures that form in steels, the various factors that determine the formation of microstructures during heat treatment processing of steel, and some of the characteristic properties of each of the microstructures. The discussion also covers the constitution of iron during heat treatment and the phases of heat-treated steel with elaborated information on iron phase transformation, hysteresis in heating and cooling, ferrite and austenite as two crystal structures of solid iron, and the diffusion coefficient of carbon.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pdub.t53420289
EISBN: 978-1-62708-310-2
.... Predict possible heat treatments . The presence of a solvus line in a phase diagram, which shows decrease of solid solubility (line OD in Fig. 14.1 ) with the decrease of temperature, indicates the chance of using a precipitation-hardening heat treatment. The presence of a eutectoid reaction in a phase...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the use of phase diagrams in alloy design, processing, and performance assessment. The examples cover both ferrous and nonferrous metals and a variety of goals and objectives. The chapter also identifies limitations and pitfalls associated with the use of phase diagrams.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aub.t61170520
EISBN: 978-1-62708-297-6
... construction materials, dry-cell battery cans, deep-drawn hardware, address plates, electrical components Zn-Al (superplastic zinc) Shaped components such as typewriter casings, computer panels, and covers Of the eleven elements exhibiting a reasonable level of solubility in zinc, silver and gold...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aub.t61170495
EISBN: 978-1-62708-297-6
... on the unique properties of specific alloying elements. Because nickel has an extensive solid solubility for many alloying elements, the micro-structure of nickel alloys consists of the fcc solid-solution austenite (γ) in which dispersoid and precipitate particles can form. Nickel forms a...
Abstract
This article examines the role of alloying in the production and use of nickel and its alloys. It explains how nickel-base alloys are categorized and lists the most common grades along with their compositional ranges and corresponding UNS numbers. It describes the role of nearly 20 alloying elements and how they influence strength, ductility, hardness, and corrosion resistance. It also addresses processing issues, explaining how alloying and intermetallic phases affect forming, welding, and machining operations.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ssde.t52310027
EISBN: 978-1-62708-286-0
... dissolution reaction: (Eq 18) Fe → Fe 2 + = 2 e − by converting the ferrous iron-ion product (Fe 2+ ) to less soluble ferric (Fe 3+ ). Due to this, macroscopic so-called tubercules form that can cause crevice-type shelters where differential aeration and pit initiation can occur...
Abstract
This chapter explores the behavior of stainless steel in media that promote corrosion. The forms of corrosion covered are uniform corrosion, atmospheric corrosion, localized corrosion, pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, and grain boundary corrosion. The chapter discusses the influence of material and environmental variables on stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) and the mechanisms proposed for SCC in stainless steel, comparing the mechanism of SCC with hydrogen embrittlement. In addition, it provides information on biocorrosion and microbiologically induced corrosion in ambient aqueous environments.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310351
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... primary purpose of producing a homogeneous solid-solution phase of all the chemical constituents. The alloy is heated and held at a temperature to dissolve precipitates. The holding time at temperature depends on the solubility of the various phases and whether the alloy is wrought or cast. Because the...
Abstract
The term heat treatable alloys is used in reference to alloys that can be hardened by heat treatment, and this chapter briefly describes the major types of heat treatable nonferrous alloys. The discussion provides a general description of annealing cold-worked metals and describes some of the common nonferrous alloys that can be hardened through heat treatment. The nonferrous alloys covered include aluminum alloys, cobalt alloys, copper alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel alloys, and titanium alloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pdub.t53420143
EISBN: 978-1-62708-310-2
... diagram. Source: Ref 8.2 as published in Ref 8.3 Carbon forms a series of solid solutions with iron, as indicated by the δ, γ, and α fields. However, carbon has very limited solubility in iron. The maximum solubility of carbon in ferrite is only approximately 0.022 wt% at 171 °C (340 °F) that...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the characteristics of eutectoid transformations, a type of solid-state transformation associated with invariant reactions, focusing on the iron-carbon system of steel. It describes the compositions, characteristics, and properties of ferrite, eutectoid, hypoeutectoid, and hypereutectoid structures and how they are affected by the addition of various alloying elements. The chapter also discusses the formation of peritectoid structures in the uranium-silicon alloy system.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ssde.t52310057
EISBN: 978-1-62708-286-0
.... Both cases are shown schematically in Fig. 8 . Let us discuss the conditions that promote one or the other of these by starting with a situation in which (a) no surface oxide exists and (b) the oxygen atmosphere is such that the solubility of oxygen within a distance X is enough to thermodynamically...
Abstract
Stainless steel retains strength and has excellent oxidation resistance from room temperature to nearly 1000 deg C relative to competitive materials. This chapter focuses on the high-temperature oxidation of stainless steel by oxygen or water vapor. It begins by discussing the thermodynamic conditions and electrochemical nature of oxidation and providing information on transient oxidation. This is followed by a description of Wagner's theory for metal oxidation. The volatile nature of Cr 2 O 3 is then reviewed. The chapter further discusses the causes and preventive measures of spalling and cracking of oxide scale. It ends with a section providing information on oxidation behaviors under less-oxidizing atmospheres.