A system failure occurs when a system does not do what it is supposed to do when it is supposed to do it, or it does something it is not supposed to do. This chapter provides a basic understanding of how failures occur, how systems operate, and the types of failures, namely intermittent and inadvertent system failures.

In order to understand how various types of single-load fractures are caused, one must understand the forces acting on the metals and also the characteristics of the metals themselves. All fractures are caused by stresses. Stress systems are best studied by examining free-body diagrams, which are simplified models of complex stress systems. Free-body diagrams of shafts in the pure types of loading (tension, torsion, and compression) are the simplest; they then can be related to more complex types of loading. This chapter discusses the principles of these simplest loading systems in ductile and brittle metals.

This chapter discusses the unique characteristics of isomorphous alloy systems. It begins with a review of the naming conventions for multi-component systems and the construction of a three-dimensional phase diagram for a two-component alloy system. It explains how phase diagrams can be constructed from time-temperature cooling curves and how they can be used to predict the phases present, their chemical compositions, and relative amounts. It also shows how phase diagrams can be modified to account for nonequilibrium cooling conditions.

This chapter focuses on what can cause a system to fail and addresses the challenge in approaching a system failure. It then examines the steps involved in the four-step problem-solving process: defining the problem, identifying all potential failure causes and evaluating the likelihood of each, identifying the potential solutions, and identifying the best solution. The chapter concludes by describing the responsibilities of a failure analysis team.

This chapter begins by presenting a generic eutectic phase diagram and identifying critical points, lines, and features. It then describes the composition and properties of aluminum-silicon and lead-tin eutectic systems, the characteristics of eutectic morphologies, the solidification and scale of eutectic structures, and the competitive growth of dendrites and eutectic colonies or cells. It also examines the different types of precipitation structures that form during slow cooling cycles.

Gas-metal reactions can have a significant impact on metals and alloys, affecting their properties (during processing) and accelerating service failures, particularly in hot, corrosive environments. This chapter discusses the kinetics of gas-metal reactions and how they are driven by Gibbs energy changes. It plots the energy of formation for many important metal oxides and explains how to construct isothermal stability diagrams to analyze complex reactions involving metals, alloys, and gases containing more than one reactive component.

This chapter reviews the development of filament winding systems and the automated processes used in state-of-the-art filament winding facilities. It first provides a description on the early stages of modern filament winding, followed by brief information on the advances of filament winding in the computer age. Then, the chapter discusses the requirements for filament winding in manufacturing oil and gas industry components and in high-volume production of sporting goods, propane tanks, and curing ovens. The chapter concludes with examples of the versatility of filament winding in producing complex parts.

This chapter describes the various types of cushion systems used in forming presses and their effect on part quality. It begins with a review of the deep drawing process, explaining that wrinkling, tearing, and fracture are the result of excess or insufficient material flow, which can be prevented by maintaining the correct amount of holding force on the periphery of the blank. It then describes how blank holding force is generated in double-action presses and the extent to which displacement profiles can be adjusted on both the inner and outer slides. The discussion then turns to single-action presses that incorporate some type of cushion system. The chapters describes the many ways that cushion systems are implemented in forming presses and the force and displacement characteristics achievable with each method. It also explains how multipoint cushion systems are designed and how they facilitate uniform metal flow into the die cavity of large deep-drawn parts.

This chapter discusses the basic components in an induction heat treating system. It describes the design and operating characteristics of power supplies, load-matching transformers, tuning capacitors, power regulators, controllers, process monitors, and diagnostic systems. It also provides information on fixtures and work-handling devices, quench systems, and load matching and tuning procedures.

This chapter discusses the use of thermoset and thermoplastic resins in polymer matrix composites. It begins by explaining how the two classes of polymer differ and how it impacts their use as matrix materials. It then goes on to describe the characteristics of polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, bismaleimide, cyanate ester, polyimide, and phenolic resins and various toughening methods. The chapter also covers thermoplastic matrix materials and product forms and provides an introduction to the physiochemical tests used to characterize resins and cured laminates.

This chapter discusses the various failure analysis techniques for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), focusing on conventional semiconductor manufacturing processes and materials. The discussion begins with a section describing the advances in integration and packaging technologies that have helped drive the further proliferation of MEMS devices in the marketplace. It then shows some examples of the top MEMS applications and quickly discusses the fundamentals of their workings. The next section describes common failure mechanisms along with techniques and challenges in identifying them. The chapter also provides information on the testing of MEMS devices. It covers the two common challenges in sample preparation for MEMS: decapping, or opening up the package, without disturbing the MEMS elements; and removing MEMS elements for analysis. Finally, the chapter discusses the aspects of failure analysis techniques that are of particular interest to MEMS.

This chapter describes the physical characteristics, properties, and behaviors of solid solutions under equilibrium conditions. It begins with a review of a single-component pure metal system and its unary phase diagram. It then examines the solid solution formed by copper and nickel atoms. It discusses the difference between interstitial and substitutional solid solutions and the factors that determine the type of solution that two metals are likely to form. It also addresses the development of intermediate phases, the role of free energy, transformation kinetics, liquid-to-solid and solid-state phase transformations, and the allotropic nature of metals.

This chapter explains how the principles of chemical thermodynamics are used in the construction and interpretation of phase diagrams. After a brief review of the laws of thermodynamics, it describes the concept of Gibbs free energy and its application to transformations that occur in single-component and binary solid solutions. It then examines the relationship between the free energy of a solution and the chemical potentials of the individual components. It also explains how to account for the heat of mixing using quasi-chemical models, discusses the effect of interatomic bond energies and chemical potentials, and shows how the equilibrium state of an alloy can be obtained from free-energy curves.

Phase diagrams are graphical representations that show the phases present in the material at various compositions, temperatures, and pressures. This chapter begins with a section describing the construction of phase diagrams for the simple binary isomorphous system. A binary phase diagram can be used to determine three important types of information: the phases that are present, the composition of the phases, and the percentages or fractions of the phases. The chapter then describes the construction of one common type of binary phase diagram i.e., the eutectic alloy system. The major eutectic systems include the aluminum-silicon eutectic system and the lead-tin eutectic system. The chapter discusses the construction of eutectic phase diagrams from free energy curves. It also provides information on peritectic, monotectic, and solid-state reactions in alloy systems. The presence of intermediate phases is also described. Finally, a brief section provides some information on ternary phase diagrams.

This chapter examines the isothermal phase transformations of the iron-carbide system. The discussion includes the formation of ferritic, eutectoid, hypoeutectoid, hypereutectoid, bainitic, and martensitic microstructures as well as their properties, composition, and metallurgy. The use of time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams in understanding the phase transformations and the changes in the isothermal transformation curves due to the addition of carbon and other alloying elements are also discussed.

This chapter discusses the composition, properties, and uses of the most common beryllium alloys and composites. It provides information on beryllium-aluminum, beryllium-copper, and beryllium-titanium as well as beryllium-antimony and beryllium-iron systems.

This chapter describes three approaches for 3D hot-spot localization of thermally active defects by lock-in thermography (LIT). In the first section, phase-shift analysis for analyzing stacked die packages is performed. The second example employs defocusing sequences for the localization of resistive electrical shorts in 3D architectures, and the third operates in cross sectional LIT mode to investigate defects in the insulation liner of Through Silicon Vias. All three approaches allow for a precise localization of thermally active defects in all three spatial dimensions to guide subsequent high-resolution physical analyses.

The management of a failure analysis (FA) laboratory requires a broad range of activities to optimize the efficiency of the operation. The purpose of this article is to stimulate readers to consider the various aspects of FA laboratory operations and their respective business management requirements. The various aspects include: staffing, laboratory organization, lab design and operations, strategic development, financial management, and metrics and measurements. References for further reading and examples of resource materials are also included.

This chapter discusses the properties and applications of beryllium intermetallic compounds. It describes the crystal structure of key beryllides, the metals they contain, and important properties such as high-temperature strength, thermal conductivity and expansion, oxidation resistance, and density. It explains how beryllide intermetallics are formed using sputter deposition, diffusion, and powder metal methods.

This chapter presents an overview of microprocessor and application specific integrated circuit (IC) testing. It begins with a description of key industry trends that will impact how ICs will be tested in the future. Next, it provides a brief description of the most common tests applied in the IC industry, where technical issues that are causing methodology changes are emphasized. These include functional testing, structural testing, scan-based delay testing, built-in self-testing, memory testing, analog circuit testing, system-on-a-chip testing, and reliability testing. Trends discussed have driven the development of novel focus areas in test and the chapter discusses several of those areas, including test data volume containment, test power containment, and novel methods of defect-based test.