This chapter discusses the factors that govern the mechanical properties of titanium, beginning with the morphology of the alpha phase. It explains that the shape of the alpha phase has a significant effect on many properties, including hardness, tensile strength, toughness, and ductility as well as creep, fatigue strength, and fatigue crack growth rate. It also discusses the influence of other titanium phases and the properties of titanium-based intermetallic compounds, metal-matrix composites, and shape-memory alloys.

Nickel and nickel alloys have an excellent combination of corrosion, oxidation, and heat resistance, combined with good mechanical properties. Nickel alloys can be divided into alloys that combine corrosion and heat resistance, superalloys for high-temperature applications, and special nickel alloys. Corrosion- and heat-resistant nickel alloys include commercially pure and low-alloy nickels, nickel-copper alloys, nickel-molybdenum and nickel-silicon alloys, nickel-chromium-iron alloys, nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys, and nickel-chromium-iron-molybdenum-copper alloys. Special nickel alloys include electrical-resistance alloys, low-expansion alloys, magnetically soft alloys, and shape memory alloys. This chapter discusses the metallurgy, nominal composition, properties, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of these alloys. It also provides information on cobalt wear-resistant alloys and cobalt corrosion-resistant alloys.

This chapter examines two important strengthening mechanisms, martensitic and bainitic transformations, both of which occur under nonequilibrium cooling conditions. It explains how time-temperature-transformation diagrams are constructed and how they are used to understand and control the formation of martensite and bainite in steel and other alloys. It describes the morphology of both types of structures, the factors that influence their formation, how they respond to tempering processes, and their effect on mechanical properties and behaviors. It also discusses the role of transformation hysteresis in shape memory alloys.

Nonferrous metals are of commercial interest both as engineering materials and as alloying agents. This chapter addresses both roles, discussing the properties, processing characteristics, and applications of several categories of nonferrous metals, including light metals, corrosion-resistance alloys, superalloys, refractory metals, low-melting-point metals, reactive metals, precious metals, rare earth metals, and metalloids or semimetals. It also provides a brief summary on special-purpose materials, including uranium, vanadium, magnetic alloys, and thermocouple materials.

This appendix contains several tables listing UNS numbers, common names, and descriptions of important titanium alloys and where they are typically used.

This appendix features images from the front and back covers and inside the covers of the book The History of Stainless Steel .

This appendix provides references for additional information on titanium and its alloys. The references are organized by topic based on the author’s recommendations. Topics include physical metallurgy, corrosion, processing, applications and developments, and general background.

The term heat treatable alloys is used in reference to alloys that can be hardened by heat treatment, and this chapter briefly describes the major types of heat treatable nonferrous alloys. The discussion provides a general description of annealing cold-worked metals and describes some of the common nonferrous alloys that can be hardened through heat treatment. The nonferrous alloys covered include aluminum alloys, cobalt alloys, copper alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel alloys, and titanium alloys.

This chapter describes the applications with the greatest impact on titanium consumption and global market trends. It explains where, how, and why titanium alloys are used in aerospace, automotive, chemical processing, medical, and military applications as well as power generating equipment, sporting goods, oil and gas production, and marine vessels.

This chapter concentrates on very low-temperature martensitic transformations, which are of great concern for cryogenic applications and research. The principal transformation characteristics are reviewed and then elaborated. The material classes or alloy systems that exhibit martensitic transformations at very low temperatures are discussed. In particular, the martensitic transformations and their effects in austenitic stainless steels, iron-nickel alloys, practical superconductors, alkali metals, solidified gases, and polymers are discussed.

This chapter describes some of the technological milestones of the early 20th century, including the invention of tungsten carbide tool steel, the use of age-hardening aluminum in the Wright Flyer , the development of a new heat treating process for aluminum alloys, and Ford’s pioneering use of weight-saving vanadium alloys in Model T cars. It explains how interest in chromium alloys spread throughout the world, spurring the development of commercial stainless steels. The chapter concludes with a bullet point timeline of early 20th century achievements and a brief assessment of more recent innovations.

This appendix identifies producers, suppliers, and service providers experienced with superalloy materials and applications. It also identifies potential sources of engineering information and property data.

Nonferrous alloys are heat treated for a variety of reasons. Heat treating can reduce internal stresses, redistribute alloying elements, promote grain formation and growth, produce new phases, and alter surface chemistry. This chapter describes heat treatment processes and how nonferrous alloys respond to them. It provides information on aluminum, cobalt, copper, magnesium, nickel, and titanium alloys and their composition, microstructure, properties, and processing characteristics.

This chapter describes the equipment and processes used to form titanium alloy parts. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of hot and cold forming, the factors that influence formability, and the effect of forming temperature and lubricants. It describes common processes, including brake forming, stretch forming, deep drawing, and spin forming as well as roll forming, drop-hammer forming, tube bulging and bending, and superplastic forming. It also discusses dimpling and joggling and the use of hot sizing to correct springback.

Titanium is a lightweight metal with a density approximately 60% that of steel and, through alloying and deformation processing, it can be just as strong. It is readily available in many grades and forms and can be further processed using standard methods and techniques. This chapter provides a concise review of the capabilities of titanium and its design advantages over other materials. It includes information on properties and selection factors as well as applications.

This chapter covers the biographies and literary and research work of pioneers in metals research, namely Henry Marion Howe, Albert Sauveur, Isaiah (Zay) Jeffries, Paul Dyer Merica, Edgar C. Bain, Samuel Leslie Hoyt, and Francis L. VerSnyder.

This chapter covers the tribological properties of stainless steel and other corrosion-resistant alloys. It describes the metallurgy and microstructure of the basic types of stainless steel and their suitability for friction and wear applications and in environments where they are subjected to liquid, droplet, and solid particle erosion. It also discusses the tribology of nickel- and cobalt-base alloys as well as titanium, zinc, tin, aluminum, magnesium, beryllium, graphite, and different types of wood.