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Cross-sectioning refers to the process of exposing the internal layers and printed devices below the surface by cleaving through the wafer. This article discusses in detail the steps involved in common cross-sectioning methods. These include sample preparation, scribing, indenting, and cleaving. The article also provides information on options for mounting, handling, and cleaning of samples during and after the cleaving process. The general procedures, tools required, and considerations that need to be taken into account to perform these techniques are considered.

This chapter describes the various features of the metallurgical microscope. Key concepts are defined such as resolving power, the virtual image, bright- and dark-field illumination, numerical aperture, focal length, image contrast, depth of field, and spherical and chromatic aberration. Metallurgical microscope features such as apochromatic objectives, hyperplane oculars, vertical illuminators, counting reticles, widefield oculars, polarization filters, field diaphragms, interferometers, and tungsten-halogen lamps are explained. The optical system, nosepiece, types of objectives (the lens assembly close to the specimen) and eyepieces, and components of the illumination system are all explained. The last part of this chapter describes special procedures involved in using and calibrating the metallurgical microscope.

Several specialized instruments are available for the metallographer to use as tools to gather key information on the characteristics of the microstructure being analyzed. These include microscopes that use electrons as a source of illumination instead of light and x-ray diffraction equipment. This chapter describes how these instruments can be used to gather important information about a microstructure. The instruments covered include image analyzers, transmission electron microscopes, scanning electron microscopes, electron probe microanalyzers, scanning transmission electron microscopes, x-ray diffractometers, microhardness testers, and hot microhardness testers. A list of other instruments that are usually located in a research laboratory or specialized testing laboratory is also provided.