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rebound methods
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Published: 01 October 2011
Fig. 11 Rebound hardness tester in accordance with the Nitronic method. Courtesy of Nitronic AG
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Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.htpa.t53310067
EISBN: 978-1-62708-346-1
... is measured: After the remaining deformation of the test surface has taken place, the remaining elastic residual energy of the rebound is measured. This is an unequivocal material parameter for the mechanical behavior of the specimen. This method is also called the “rebound hardness test.” This chapter...
Abstract
In dynamic hardness tests, the test force is applied to the defined indenter in an accelerated way (with a high application rate). Dynamic test methods relate hardness to the elastic response of a material, whereas the classical static indentation tests determine hardness in terms of plastic behavior. This chapter describes the most important and widespread dynamic hardness testing methods. These tests fall into two categories: methods in which the deformation is measured and methods in which the energy is measured. Methods that measure deformation include the Poldi hammer method, the shearing force method, the Baumann hammer method, and the Dynatest method. Methods that measure energy include the Shore method, the Leeb method, and the Nitronic method. The chapter concludes with a discussion of applications of dynamic hardness testing.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.htpa.9781627083461
EISBN: 978-1-62708-346-1
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 April 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.imub.t53720085
EISBN: 978-1-62708-305-8
... methods account for virtually all routine hardness testing in the metalworking industry. Static indentation hardness testing is the more widely used of the two methods, although rebound testing is extensively employed, particularly for hardness measurements on large workpieces or for applications in which...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the operating mechanism, applications, advantages, and limitations of Brinell hardness testing, Rockwell hardness testing, Vickers hardness testing, Scleroscope hardness testing, and microhardness testing. In addition, the general precautions and selection criteria to be considered are described and details of equipment setup provided.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hpcspa.t54460067
EISBN: 978-1-62708-285-3
... estimated adhesion and rebound energies and postulated that bonding would occur if the former is greater than the latter. There have also been analytical treatments of the problem by the inventors of the cold spray process ( Ref 3.46 ). They proposed a method for the estimation of the overall strain...
Abstract
The modeling and simulation activities in the field of high-pressure cold spray can be divided into two main parts: solid mechanics and fluid dynamics. This chapter focuses on these parts of modeling work in cold spray research. The discussion covers the objective, principal concepts, methods, and outcome of modeling and simulation of particle impact and of in-flight history of particles in cold spraying. The concept of integration of particle impact and fluid flow modeling to optimize cold spray deposition for a given material is also explained.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.htpa.t53310119
EISBN: 978-1-62708-346-1
... rebound hardness testing method is used. In accordance with the standard ISO 8307 ( Ref 23 ), a steel sphere with a diameter of 16 mm (0.63 in.) is dropped onto the sample from a height of 500 mm (19.7 in.), and the height to which it bounces back is measured. The easiest way to do this is to measure...
Abstract
This chapter reviews the tests and procedures used for measuring hardness of plastics and elastomers. The conventional testing methods (Rockwell, Vickers, Brinell, and Knoop) used for testing of metals are based on the idea that hardness represents the resistance against permanent plastic deformation of the material to be tested. However, elastic deformation must be considered in hardness measurement of elastomers. This chapter discusses the equipment and processes involved in the durometer (Shore) test, the International Rubber Hardness Degree test, and other specialized tests. It presents the criteria that can be used to select a suitable hardness testing method for elastomers or plastics and describes processes involved in specimen preparation and equipment calibration.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1984
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mpp.t67850334
EISBN: 978-1-62708-260-0
...Abstract Abstract Hardness tests provide valuable information about the quality of materials and how they are likely to perform in different types of service. This chapter covers some of the most widely used hardness testing methods, including Vickers, Rockwell, and Brinell tests, Shore...
Abstract
Hardness tests provide valuable information about the quality of materials and how they are likely to perform in different types of service. This chapter covers some of the most widely used hardness testing methods, including Vickers, Rockwell, and Brinell tests, Shore scleroscope and Equotip hardness tests, and microindentation tests. It describes the equipment and procedures used, discusses the factors that influence accuracy, and provides hardness conversion equations for different types of materials. It also explains how hardness testing sheds light on anisotropy, machinability, wear, fracture toughness, and tensile strength as well as temperature effects, residual stress, and quality control.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pht2.t51440027
EISBN: 978-1-62708-262-4
... against the surface of the material from a fixed height and the hardness expressed in terms of height to which the hammer rebounds. History of Hardness Testing According to the records, the first method of evaluating hardness was developed in 1772, when Reaumur devised a procedure of pressing...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the general principles of measuring hardness and hardenability of steel. The discussion begins by defining hardness and exploring the history of hardness testing. This is followed by a discussion on the principles, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of commonly used hardness testing systems: the Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, Scleroscope, and various microhardness testers that employ Vickers or Knoop indenters. The effect of carbon content on annealed steels and hardened steels is then discussed. A brief discussion on the concept of the ideal critical diameter and austenitic grain size of steels is also provided to understand how one can calculate and quantify hardenability. The processes involved in various methods for evaluating hardenability are reviewed, discussing the effect of alloying elements on hardenability.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hpcspa.t54460017
EISBN: 978-1-62708-285-3
... is stored elastically in particle and substrate during the impact. Thus, bonding in the ASI zones by cooling must take place within a certain limited time frame and should be sufficiently strong to withstand the elastic rebound energies ( Ref 2.48 , 2.49 ) of particle and substrate. At the time of onset...
Abstract
This chapter reviews the current understanding of high-pressure cold spraying for different materials, covering widely accepted general mechanisms for particle deposition and the processes and parameters involved. It begins by reviewing the mechanisms of bonding. An overview of the optimization of the critical process parameters for improving coating qualities is then provided. This is followed by a separate section dealing with bonding between different materials and addressing influences on adhesion to the substrate as well as the cohesion between dissimilar coating constituents. The knowledge of the basic science and mechanisms finally allows for discussion on the requirements for suitable cold spray equipment and of the parameter sets needed for successful coating deposition.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.htpa.t53310001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-346-1
... for the instrumented indentation test with mechanical, hydraulic depth measurement. 1900 J.A. Brinell developed the ball indentation test. 1907 P. Ludwik reported on a cone probe used both statically and dynamically. A.F. Shore created the rebound hardness measuring method. E. Meyer set up the power law...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the history of hardness testing and defines the term hardness. It describes the interrelationship between material structure and hardness and the relationships between hardness and other mechanical material properties. In addition, information on the hardness unit and traceability of the hardness measurement are provided.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hpcspa.t54460001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-285-3
..., to achieve good bonding in cold spray the impact velocity of the spray particles must exceed a critical minimum to produce a hydrodynamic shear instability at the bond interface that is essential for good bonding. If the impact velocity is too low, the particles will simply rebound and abrade the surface...
Abstract
Cold spray is a process technology that, for the first time, enables the rapid deposition of a wide range of metals and some other materials in the solid state at temperatures far below their melting points. This chapter provides an overview of the processes involved in cold spray process technologies, namely high-pressure cold spray (HPCS) and low-pressure cold spray (LPCS), explaining differences of LPCS from HPCS. It summarizes the historical background of the cold spray process. The growing international interest in the cold spray process from the early 2000s is also reviewed.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.piht2.t55050093
EISBN: 978-1-62708-311-9
..., ranging from the use of heat-treating furnaces to lasers, while cooling methods can range from cooling in air to quenching with water. Regardless of the method of heating and cooling used, metallurgical processes can be described scientifically. Iron and Steel Fundamentally, all steels are alloys...
Abstract
This chapter covers the fundamentals of heat treating. It begins with a review of the composition, classification, and properties of iron and steel, the phases of the iron-carbon system, and the basic types of heat treatments. It then discusses the topics of hardness and hardenability, the role of carbon in the hardening of steels, the process of austenitization, and the influence of cooling rate on subsequent transformations. The chapter also explains how induction heating affects residual stress, distortion, and grain size.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.secwr.t68350043
EISBN: 978-1-62708-315-7
... combinations of engineering materials and coatings. It also describes the causes and effects of the most common forms of wear, the conditions under which they occur, the role of lubrication, and wear testing methods. friction coefficient lubrication wear wear testing FRICTION, WEAR...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the basic principles of friction and the factors that must be considered when determining its effect on moving bodies in contact. It provides an extensive amount of friction data, including static and kinetic friction coefficients for numerous combinations of engineering materials and coatings. It also describes the causes and effects of the most common forms of wear, the conditions under which they occur, the role of lubrication, and wear testing methods.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1984
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mpp.9781627082600
EISBN: 978-1-62708-260-0
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.horfi.t51180061
EISBN: 978-1-62708-256-3
... wonderful until you realize that the absolute increase was the introduction of two new products versus last year’s one new product, which is not so impressive. Make sure the statistics make sense; do not follow them blindly. Statistical Methods Statistical methods must also be selected with care...
Abstract
Statistics, data analysis, root cause analysis, and problem-solving processes play a key role in failure investigations. This chapter explains how to collect failure investigation data, how to build and maintain a database for company-related failures, and how to use corresponding statistics including type of failure, material, and root cause. It describes the purpose and benefits of conducting a root cause analysis and the factors, namely relative failure importance and company value, that determine when an investigation should be performed. The chapter also discusses the four-step problem-solving process as it applies to failure investigation, how to assemble an investigation team, and the details of organization and planning. It concludes with a case history of the Firestone 500 steel-belted tire failure, stressing the importance of a systematic approach to failure investigations.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hpcspa.t54460121
EISBN: 978-1-62708-285-3
...-substrate interface. Evaluating the coating residual stress and the coating relaxation behavior after thermal treatments becomes imperative to establish the reliable functionality of the coating for the proposed application. Microstructural characterization methods including optical microscopy, scanning...
Abstract
This chapter elucidates the indispensable role of characterization in the development of cold-sprayed coatings and illustrates some of the common processes used during coatings development. Emphasis is placed on the advanced microstructural characterization techniques that are used in high-pressure cold spray coating characterization, including residual-stress characterization. The chapter includes some preliminary screening of tool hardness and bond adhesion strength, as well as a distinction between surface and bulk characterization techniques and their importance for cold spray coatings. The techniques covered are optical microscopy, X-Ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, focused ion beam machining, electron probe microanalysis, transmission electron microscopy, and electron backscattered diffraction. The techniques also include electron channeling contrast imaging, X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, Auger electron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, oxygen analysis, and nanoindentation.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.cfap.t69780115
EISBN: 978-1-62708-281-5
... becomes rubbery. The T g is also a measure of the onset of long-range molecular movement in the plastic. Because the transition from glass to rubber is not a thermodynamic transition, but rather a manifestation of viscoelasticity, the exact value of the T g depends on the method used to measure...
Abstract
This article covers the thermal analysis and thermal properties of engineering plastics with respect to chemical composition, chain configuration, and/or conformation of the base polymers. The thermal analysis techniques covered are differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, thermomechanical analysis, and rheological analysis. The basic thermal properties covered include thermal conductivity, temperature resistance, thermal expansion, specific heat, and the determination of glass-transition temperatures. The article further describes various factors influencing the determination of service temperature of a material. Representative examples of different types of engineering thermoplastics are discussed in terms of structure and thermal properties. The article also discusses the thermal and related properties of thermoset resin systems.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.tpmpa.t54480001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-318-8
... with additional TiO 2 this was reduced to 2%. The first pure titanium metal was prepared in the United States by M.A. Hunter at the General Electric Company in 1906. Hunter followed the methods of Nilson and Peterson and excluded air from the apparatus. He obtained metallic titanium practically free...
Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the production and use of titanium and its significance as an engineering material. It begins by identifying important deposits and ores and assessing current and future production capacities and how they align with global consumption trends. It then describes the physical and mechanical properties of pure titanium and numerous grades of wrought titanium alloys and explains how they compare with other aerospace materials in terms of processing complexity and cost. The chapter also includes information on extractive metallurgy, current and emerging processes, product forms, and related costs.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hpcspa.t54460185
EISBN: 978-1-62708-285-3
..., no combustible gases, such as H 2 , are involved. Little or no postcoating finishing: As-sprayed coatings have a smoother finish than those deposited by other methods. Little or no posttreatment for management of thermal stresses: Deposition occurs in the solid state, there is no heat-affected zone...
Abstract
Cold spray coatings technology has the potential to provide surface enhancement for applications in sectors such as defense and aerospace, oil and gas, power generation, medical, automotive, electronics, and railways. The ability to deposit clean metallic coatings is used in applications requiring corrosion/oxidation protection, erosion/wear protection, additive manufacturing, and fabricating free forms. This chapter discusses the function, advantages, and benefits of some of these applications.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240201
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
... loads or forces. Since the results of these tests are often used by regulatory agencies, it is important that these test methods are consistent and standardized. In the United States, ASTM International is the most widely recognized source of standardized testing procedures. Fig. 12.1 States...
Abstract
The mechanical behavior of a material is its response to an applied load or force. Important mechanical properties are strength, hardness, stiffness, and ductility. This chapter discusses three principal ways in which these properties are tested: tension, compression, and shear. Important tensile properties that can be determined by the tensile test include yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility, resilience, and toughness. The chapter describes the effects of stress concentrations on ductile metals under cyclic loads. Other topics covered include combined stresses, yield criteria, and residual stresses of metals.