Organic coatings (paints and plastic or rubber linings), metallic coatings, and nonmetallic inorganic coatings (conversion coatings, cements, ceramics, and glasses) are used in applications requiring corrosion protection. These coatings and linings may protect substrates by three basic mechanisms: barrier protection, chemical inhibition, and galvanic (sacrificial) protection. This chapter begins with a section on organic coating and linings, providing a detailed account of the steps involved in the coating process, namely, design and selection, surface preparation, application, and inspection and quality assurance. The next section discusses the methods by which metals, and in some cases their alloys, can be applied to almost all other metals and alloys: electroplating, electroless plating, hot dipping, thermal spraying, cladding, pack cementation, vapor deposition, ion implantation, and laser processing. The last section focuses on nonmetallic inorganic coatings including ceramic coating materials, conversion coatings, and anodized coatings.

This chapter is a detailed account of major sources of stray current that can cause corrosion and discusses several ways to prevent damage from stray-current corrosion.

This chapter discusses the use of coating methods and materials and their impact on corrosion and wear behaviors. It provides detailed engineering information on a wide range of processes, including organic, ceramic, and hot dip coating, metal plating and cladding, and the use of weld overlays, thermal spraying, and various deposition technologies.

This chapter presents the primary considerations and mechanisms for corrosion and how they are involved in the selection of materials for process equipment in petroleum refineries and petrochemical plants. In addition, specific information on mechanical properties, corrosion, sulfide stress cracking, hydrogen-induced cracking, stress-oriented hydrogen-induced cracking, hydrogen embrittlement cracking, stress-corrosion cracking, velocity-accelerated corrosion, erosion-corrosion, and corrosion control is provided.

This chapter discusses the particular corrosion problems encountered and the methods of control used in petroleum production and the storage and transportation of oil and gas up to the refinery. It begins by describing those aspects of corrosion that tend to be unique to corrosion as encountered in applications involving oil and gas exploration and production. This is followed by a section reviewing the methods of corrosion control, namely the proper selection of materials, protective coatings, cathodic protection systems, use of inhibitors, use of nonmetallic materials, and control of the environment. The chapter ends with a discussion on the problems encountered and protective measures that are based on the state-of-the-art as practiced daily by corrosion and petroleum engineers and production personnel.

This chapter discusses the most common causes and contributing factors for external corrosion and stress-corrosion cracking on oil and natural gas pipelines, as well as describes procedures for prevention, mitigation, detection, assessment, and repair. The forms of external corrosion covered include differential cell corrosion, microbiologically influenced corrosion, and stray current corrosion.

The surface condition of metals can have a significant effect on the outcome of high-temperature processes and vice versa. This chapter discusses the general cleaning and surface treatment needs of work in-process both before and after induction hardening. It identifies contaminants and defects associated with various quenchants and processing atmospheres and provides insights on how they can be removed and, in some cases, prevented. It also recommends the application of a rust preventative shortly after parts have cooled.

This chapter discusses the principles of corrosion of metals in aqueous environments. The thermodynamics of aqueous corrosion is the subject of the first half of this chapter, which addresses concepts such as corrosion reactions and free-energy change, the relationship between free energy and electrochemical potential, the effect of ionic concentration on electrode potential, and the corrosion behavior of a metal based on its potential-pH diagram. The corrosion (potential-pH) behavior of iron, gold, copper, zinc, aluminum, and titanium are described. Understanding the kinetics of corrosion and the factors that control the rates of corrosion reactions requires examination of the concepts of polarization behavior and identification of the various forms of polarization in an electrochemical cell. These concepts, addressed in the remaining of this chapter, include anodic and cathodic reactions, the mixed-potential theory, and the exchange currents.

In the Semiconductor I/C industry, it has been well documented that the proportion of factory and customer field returns attributed to device damage resulting from electrical over-stress (EOS) and electro-static discharge (ESD) can amount to 40 to 50%. This study entailed EOS and ESD simulation using a variety of models, namely the Human Body Model (HBM), the Charged Device Model (CDM) and the so-called Machine Model (MM), and then conducting electrical and physical failure analysis and comparing the results with documented analyses performed on customer field returns and factory failures. It is shown that a distinction can be made between EOS and ESD failures and between the characteristic failure signatures produced by the ESD models. The CDM physical failure location is at the input buffer and in the gate oxide, where as both HBM and MM failures occur mostly in the contacts at the input protection structures.

The basic concept for most methods of corrosion protection is to remove one or more of the electrochemical cell components so that the pure metal or metal alloy of interest will not corrode. Another widely used corrosion protection approach is to change the nature of the anode so that it becomes the cathode (cathodic protection). This chapter briefly reviews these methods of corrosion protection. The factors affecting corrosion behavior are covered. In addition, the chapter provides information on coatings and inhibitors, which are used in corrosion protection.

This chapter develops a corrosion model that accounts for solution potentials and the effects of coupling between cathodic and anodic reactions. It begins by examining potential differences at various points (in the solution) along a path from the anode to the cathode area. It then presents a simple model of a galvanically coupled electrode, in which the metal is represented as an array of anode and cathode reaction surfaces. The chapter goes on to develop the related theory of mixed electrodes, showing how it can be used to predict corrosion rates based on measured potentials and current densities, polarization characteristics, and physical variables such as anode-to-cathode area ratios and fluid velocity. It also discusses the effect of corrosion inhibitors, galvanic coupling, and external currents, making extensive use of polarization curves.

To a large extent, the induction coil and its coupling to the workpiece determine the precise heating pattern that is developed. However, it is often desirable to modify this pattern in order to produce a special heating distribution or to increase energy efficiency. At other times, the high heating rates of induction are needed for processing nonconductors. This chapter describes broad methods of accomplishing such objectives: modification of the field of magnetic induction, use of devices to prevent auxiliary equipment or certain portions of a workpiece from being heated, and techniques to apply heating to electrically nonconductive materials. These methods make use of devices such as flux concentrators, shields, and susceptors. The chapter provides a description of the materials for these devices and guidelines for their application.

All materials are susceptible to corrosion or some form of environmental degradation. Although no single material is suitable for all applications, usually there are a variety of materials that will perform satisfactorily in a given environment. The intent of this chapter is to review the corrosion behavior of the major classes of metals and alloys as well as some nonmetallic materials, describe typical corrosion applications, and present some unique weaknesses of various types of materials. It also aims to point out some unique material characteristics that may be important in material selection, and discuss, where appropriate, the characteristic forms of corrosion that attack specific materials. The materials addressed in this chapter include carbon steels, weathering steels, and alloy steels; nickel, copper, aluminum, titanium, lead, magnesium, tin, zirconium, tantalum, niobium, and cobalt and their alloys; polymers; and other nonmetallic materials, including rubber, carbon and graphite, and woods.

This chapter discusses the basic principles of corrosion, explaining how and why it occurs and how it is categorized and dealt with based on the appearance of corrosion damage or the mechanism of attack. It explains where different forms of corrosion are likely to occur and identifies metals likely to be affected. It also discusses the selection and use of protective coatings and the tests that have been developed to measure their effectiveness.

Corrosion can be defined as a chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of the material and its properties. This chapter describes the effects and economic impact of corrosion in major industrial plants. The emphasis in this chapter, as well as in other chapters in this book, is on aqueous corrosion, or corrosion in environments where water is present. The chapter describes the classification of various forms of corrosion based on the nature of the corrodent, mechanism of corrosion, and appearance of the corroded metal. It discusses five primary methods of corrosion control, namely, material selection, coatings, inhibitors, cathodic protection, and design. Examples of the opportunities in corrosion control and the means to implement a program to capitalize on those opportunities are presented in a table. The chapter concludes with varied sources of information pertaining to corrosion and corrosion prevention.

This chapter discusses various factors pertinent to the prevention of corrosion in alloys for petroleum applications and reviews the selection of stainless steels for petroleum applications, including oil country tubular goods, line pipe, offshore platforms, liquefied natural gas vessels, and refinery equipment.

This chapter begins with a brief review of the different types of surface treatments and coatings used in industry and their effect on properties and performance. It then discusses the importance of corrosion and wear treatments and the consequences of failing to properly implement them in critical industries such as mining, energy production, transportation, and mineral and chemical processing. The chapter also describes basic approaches to dealing with corrosion and wear in steel.

This chapter provides helpful guidelines for selecting a surface treatment for a given application. It identifies important design factors and applicable treatments for common design scenarios, materials, and operating conditions. It explains why heat treatments and finishing operations may be required before or after processing and how to estimate or predict coating thickness, case depth, hardness, and the likelihood of distortion. It also addresses related issues and considerations such as part handling and fixturing, surface preparation and cleaning requirements, processability, aesthetics, and the influence of design features.

This chapter first covers some basic principles of electrochemical corrosion and then some of the various types of corrosion. Some of the more common types of corrosion discussed include uniform corrosion, galvanic corrosion, pitting, crevice corrosion, erosion-corrosion, cavitation, fretting corrosion, intergranular corrosion, exfoliation, dealloying corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, and corrosion fatigue. The chapter discusses the processes involved in corrosion control by retarding either the anodic or cathodic reactions. The rate of corrosion is reduced by conditioning of the metal, by conditioning the environment, and by electrochemical control. Finally, the chapter deals with high-temperature oxidation that usually occurs in the absence of moisture.

This chapter examines methods of internal corrosion prediction for multiphase pipelines and details methodologies to perform internal corrosion direct assessment for natural gas pipelines. Further, real-time monitoring techniques for assessing actual corrosion at critical locations are discussed.