This chapter focuses on what can cause a system to fail and addresses the challenge in approaching a system failure. It then examines the steps involved in the four-step problem-solving process: defining the problem, identifying all potential failure causes and evaluating the likelihood of each, identifying the potential solutions, and identifying the best solution. The chapter concludes by describing the responsibilities of a failure analysis team.

In the second step of the four-step problem-solving process, the failure analysis team should identify all potential failure causes. This chapter discusses the steps involved in five such techniques for identifying potential causes of failure, namely brainstorming, mind mapping, Ishikawa diagrams, the “five whys” technique, and flow charting.

This chapter describes cast steel features that may be identified or attributed to component failure during heat treatment or subsequent processing or service, namely porosity (generated by the presence of gas as well as by shrinkage pores), decarburization, cold joint, and inclusions.

This article introduces the wafer-level fault localization failure analysis (FA) process flow for an accelerated yield ramp-up of integrated circuits. It discusses the primary design considerations of a fault localization system with an emphasis on complex tester-based applications. The article presents examples that demonstrate the benefits of the enhanced wafer-level FA process. It also introduces the setup of the wafer-level fault localization system. The application of the wafer-level FA process on a 22 nm technology device failing memory test is studied and some common design limitations and their implications are discussed. The article presents a case study and finally introduces a different value-add application flow capitalizing on the wafer-level fault localization system.

Gas turbine disks made from nickel-base superalloys are often produced using powder metallurgy (P/M) techniques because the alloy compositions normally used are difficult or impractical to forge by conventional methods. This chapter discusses the P/M process and its application to superalloys. It describes the gas, vacuum, and centrifugal atomization processes used to make commercial superalloy powders. It explains how the powders are consolidated into preforms or billets using hot isostatic pressing, extrusion, or a combination of the two. It also provides information on spray forming and consolidation by atmospheric pressure, and includes a section on powder-based disk components, where it discusses the general advantages of P/M as well as the effects of inclusions, carbon contamination, and the formation of oxide and carbide films due to prior particle boundary conditions. The chapter concludes with a detailed discussion on mechanically alloyed superalloy compositions, the product forms into which they are made, and some of the applications where they are used.

This article presents methods that enable one to consistently, uniformly and quickly remove substrate silicon from units without imparting damage to the structure of interest. It provides examples of electron beam probing and backside nano-probing techniques. The electron beam probing techniques are E-beam Logic State Imaging, Electron-beam Signal Image Mapping, and E-beam Device Perturbation. Backside nano-probing techniques discussed include: Electron Beam Absorbed Current, Electron Beam Induced Resistance Change, four terminal resistance measurements, resistive gate defect identification, and circuit editing. The article also presents methods to prepare electron beam probing samples where some remaining silicon is required for the transistor functions and transmission electron microscope samples from units where the substrate silicon has been partially or completely removed.

This chapter provides an overview of the fundamental material- and process-related parameters of quenching on residual stress, distortion control, and cracking. It begins with a description of phase transformations during heating and quenching of steel. This is followed by a section on the effects of materials and quench process design on distortion of steel during heat treating. Details on stress raisers and their role in quench cracking are then presented. The chapter ends with various selected case histories of failures attributed to the quenching process.

This chapter provides a basis for understanding the influence of stainless steel alloy composition and metallurgy on the welding process, which involves complex dynamics associated with melting, refining, and thermal processing. It begins with an overview of the welding characteristics of the categories of stainless steels, namely austenitic, duplex, ferritic, martensitic, and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. This is followed by a discussion of the selection criteria for materials to be welded. Various welding processes used with stainless steel are then described. The chapter ends with a section on some of the practices to ensure safety and weld quality.

Semiconductor memories are superb drivers for process yield and reliability improvement because of their highly structured architecture and use of aggressive layout rules. This combination provides outstanding failure signature analysis possibilities for the entire design, manufacturing, and test process. This article discusses five key disciplines of the signature analysis process that need to be orchestrated within the organization: design for test practices, test floor data collection methodology, post-test data analysis tools, root cause theorization, and physical failure analysis strategies.

Superalloys, except those with high aluminum and titanium contents, are welded with little difficulty. They can also be successfully brazed. This chapter describes the welding and brazing processes most often used and the factors that must be considered when making application decisions. It discusses the basic concepts of fusion welding and the differences between solid-solution-hardened and precipitation-hardened wrought superalloys. It addresses joint integrity, design, weld-related cracking, and the effect of grain size, precipitates, and contaminants. It covers common fusion welding techniques, defect prevention, fixturing, heat treatments, and general practices, including the use of filler metals. It also discusses several solid-state welding methods, superplastic forming, and transient liquid phase bonding, a type of diffusion welding process. The chapter includes extensive information on brazing processes, atmospheres, filler metals, and surface preparation procedures. It also includes examples of nickel-base welded components for aerospace use.

Brazing and soldering processes use a molten filler metal to wet the mating surfaces of a joint, with or without the aid of a fluxing agent, leading to the formation of a metallurgical bond between the filler and the respective components. This chapter discusses the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of brazing and soldering. The first part focuses on the fundamentals of the brazing process and provides information on filler metals and specific brazing methods. The soldering portion of the chapters provides information on solder alloys used, selection criteria for base metal, the processes involved in precleaning and surface preparation, types of fluxes used, solder joint design, and solder heating methods.

This chapter discusses the processes involved in the heat treatment of steel, namely austenitizing, hardening, quenching, and tempering. It begins with an overview of austenitizing of steels by induction heating, followed by a discussion on the processes involved in transformation of the soft austenite into martensite or lower bainite in the hardening operation. The chapter provides information on various quenching systems and a description of quenching techniques, namely austempering, martempering, and patenting. Difficulties associated with hardening of steel are discussed. Further, the chapter describes the equipment used for and principal variables of tempering. It discusses the causes for various forms of embrittlement due to tempering. Information on multiple tempering, protective-atmosphere tempering, and selective tempering are also provided, along with processes involved in selection of tempering temperature. The chapter ends with a section discussing various effects, advantages, and disadvantages of precipitation hardening.

This chapter discusses the various factors pertinent to gravity permanent mold (GPM) castings, along with their advantages, limitations, and significance. The discussion covers the geometric factors, process and manufacturing elements, gating practices, and feeding principles of and pouring systems in GPM. The influences of mold coatings on GPM and low pressure permanent mold castings are described. The chapter also discusses various processes involved in the engineering of core boxes and cooling of GPM for casting integrity and cycle time control. It provides information on some of the processes involved in post-casting operations, namely de-coring and de-gating. The key design aspects for consideration in water quenching during the T6 heat treatment are reviewed. The chapter also provides information on two critical cycle events important in engineering at the manufacturing facility: tipper cycle planning and table or cell cycle planning.

Corrective action means the implementation or modification of things designed to eliminate or reduce failure causes. This chapter addresses developing potential solutions and selecting the best solution. It discusses the special operations that should be used only as temporary or interim corrective actions to overcome design, process, and other failure causes. The chapter concludes by describing the process of corrective action implementation.

This chapter discusses the development of aluminum, its industry growth, and its modern uses in manufacturing. It begins with the biography of Charles Martin Hall, who invented the process for reducing aluminum from its ore. The evolution of aluminum production from the Pittsburgh Reduction Company to a pilot plant on Smallman Street in Pittsburgh, to a production plant in New Kensington, and to Niagara Falls, New York, is then described. This is followed by a discussion on early aluminum applications and the usage of lower-cost raw materials. The chapter provides information on aluminum production process integrated by Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) and the numerous technical problems and solutions related to Alcoa's research from World War I to World War II. The aerospace applications for aluminum alloys are also presented. The chapter concludes with a section on aluminum alloys developed by Alcoa.

A systematic procedure for minimizing risks involved in heat treated steel components requires a combination of metallurgical failure analysis and fitness for service with respect to safety and reliability based on risk analysis. This chapter begins with an overview of heat treat processing of steels. This is followed by sections on various aspects of heat treatment design and heat treating practices for minimizing distortion. Influence of design, steel grade, and condition is then illustrated in the examples of failures due to heat treatment. A procedure is analyzed to improve the performance of the design process of a component. A heat-transfer model, coupling with a phase transformation model, a thermomechanical model, and a thermochemical model, is also considered. The chapter further provides information on the failure aspects of and heat treatment procedures applied to welded components. It ends with a section on risk-based approach applicable to heat treated steel components.

This chapter covers the basic steps of the powder metallurgy process, including powder manufacture, powder blending, compacting, and sintering. It identifies important powder characteristics such as particle size, size distribution, particle shape, and purity. It compares and contrasts mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, and atomizing processes used in powder production, discusses powder treatments, and describes consolidation techniques along with secondary operations used to obtain special properties or improve dimensional precision. It also discusses common defects such as ejection cracks, density variations, and microlaminations.

Metal-matrix composites can operate at higher temperatures than their base metal counterparts and, unlike polymer-matrix composites, are nonflammable, do not outgas in a vacuum, and resist attack by solvents and fuels. They can also be tailored to provide greater strength and stiffness, among other properties, in preferred directions and locations. This chapter discusses the processes and procedures used in the production of fiber-reinforced aluminum and titanium metal-matrix composites. It explains how the length and orientation of reinforcing fibers affect the properties and processing characteristics of both aluminum and titanium composites. It also provides information on fiber-metal laminates and the use of different matrix metals and reinforcing materials.

Failure mode assessment and assignment (FMA&A) is a tool designed to help organize the evaluation of hypothesized failure modes. This chapter begins by describing the process of preparing an FMA&A. It then describes the follow-on activities to evaluate the hypothesized failure cause. The chapter also provides information on evaluating the hypothesized potential causes.

This chapter discusses the use of phase diagrams in alloy design, processing, and performance assessment. The examples cover both ferrous and nonferrous metals and a variety of goals and objectives. The chapter also identifies limitations and pitfalls associated with the use of phase diagrams.