This chapter discusses the ways in which the evolution of filament winding software systems has capitalized on the inherent flexibility of computer numerical controlled winding machines and enhanced their productivity. It provides a detailed discussion on different types of geometries that can be wound, from the simple to the highly complex, with insight into the limitations, advantages, and challenges of each. Components covered include classic axisymmetric parts (rings, pipes, driveshafts, pipe reducers, tapered shafts, closed-end pressure vessels, and storage tanks), nonround sections (aeromasts, airfoils, box sections, and fuselage sections), curved-axis parts (elbows, ducts), and special applications (tees). Basic winding concepts, such as band pattern, are discussed and explained, and some simple predictive formulae are introduced. The chapter also provides examples of programming various geometries using advanced software tools and discusses how various materials, such as rovings, tow-preg, prepreg tape, and woven materials, affect winding program generation.

This chapter familiarizes readers with the many and varied thermoset composite fabrication processes and the types of applications for which they were developed. It describes wet lay-up, prepreg lay-up, and low-temperature vacuum bag curing prepreg processes, which are best suited for low-volume, medium-sized and larger parts. It also discusses filament winding and preforming processes (including weaving, knitting, stitching, and braiding) in addition to resin-transfer molding, resin film infusion, and pultrusion.

This chapter discusses thermoplastic composite fabrication processes and related equipment and procedures. The discussion covers consolidation and thermoforming operations as well as joining methods.

This chapter provides an overview of the tools and techniques, as well as some of the underlying theory, that have proven useful for process modeling and simulation. It begins by presenting the framework of a thermoset cure model that accounts for kinetics, viscosity, heat transfer, flow, voids, and residual stress. It then discusses each variable in detail, explaining how it affects the cure process, how it is measured, and how it can be expressed mathematically in the form of a simple model. The discussions throughout the chapter are supported by numerous images, diagrams, and data plots.

This chapter discusses the properties and processing characteristics of glass, aramid, carbon, and ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene fibers and related product forms, including woven fabrics, prepreg, and reinforced mats. It also includes a review of fiber terminology as well as physical and mechanical property data for commercially important high-strength fibers.

The objective of mechanical testing of an engineered material is to provide data necessary for the analysis, design, and fabrication of structural components using the material. The testing of filament-wound composite materials offers unique challenges because of the special characteristics of composites. This chapter describes suitable static mechanical test techniques for characterizing laminated composite materials. The approach is to provide recommended techniques, based on consensus opinions of fabricators and users of filament-wound composites, and to survey available techniques that have been used successfully in the field. The chapter describes the effects of various factors on the properties of composite constituents, including fibers, resins, and unidirectional plies. Some aspects of specimen selection are also described. The chapter provides information on pressure bottles and tubular parts that have been developed as standard test specimens for combined load testing of composites.

This chapter discusses design and certification considerations, including materials and process selection, the building block approach to certification, design allowables, and design guidelines. It also includes information on damage tolerance and environmental sensitivity.

Polymer-matrix composites are among the lightest structural materials in use today. They are also highly resistant to corrosion and fatigue and their load-carrying capabilities, such as strength and stiffness, can be tailored for specific applications. This chapter discusses the primary advantages and disadvantages of polymer-matrix composites, how they are produced, and how they perform in different applications. It describes the construction of laminates, the fibers and resins used, and the methods by which they are combined. It explains how strength, modulus, toughness, and high-temperature and corrosion behaviors are determined by the orientation, shape, and spacing of fibers, the number of plies, resin properties, and consolidation and forming methods. The chapter also covers secondary fabrication processes, such as thermoforming, machining, and joining, as well as production equipment and product forms, and include guidelines for optimizing tradeoffs when selecting fibers, resins, and production techniques.

This article covers common techniques for surface characterization, including the modern scanning electron microscopy and methods for the chemical characterization of surfaces by Auger electron spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry. The principles of surface analysis and some of the applications of the technique in polymer failure studies are also provided.

This chapter discusses the primary methods used to repair composites, including fill repairs, injection repairs, bolted repairs, and bonded repairs. It also discusses issues associated with field repairs.

This chapter discusses the use of thermoset and thermoplastic resins in polymer matrix composites. It begins by explaining how the two classes of polymer differ and how it impacts their use as matrix materials. It then goes on to describe the characteristics of polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, bismaleimide, cyanate ester, polyimide, and phenolic resins and various toughening methods. The chapter also covers thermoplastic matrix materials and product forms and provides an introduction to the physiochemical tests used to characterize resins and cured laminates.

The necessity of developing the lightest-weight structures with sufficient strength was the driving factor for the development of filament-wound composite pressure vessels. This chapter presents a brief history of the development of rocket motor cases (RMCs), followed by a comparison of the advantages of composites over metals for RMCs. A discussion on a typical design, analysis, and manufacturing operation follows. The chapter introduces the basic design approach and shows some sizing techniques along with example calculations. It discusses the processes involved in the testing of the composite pressure vessel.

This chapter discusses the advantages and disadvantages of metal matrix composites and the methods used to produce them. It begins with a review of the composition and properties of aluminum matrix composites. It then describes discontinuous composite processing methods, including stir and slurry casting, liquid metal infiltration, spray deposition, powder metallurgy, extrusion, hot rolling, and forging. The chapter also provides information on continuous-fiber aluminum and titanium composites as well as particle-reinforced titanium and fiber metal (glass aluminum) laminates.

This chapter examines the static, fatigue, and damage tolerance properties of glass, aramid, and carbon fiber systems. It also explains how delaminations, voids, porosity, fiber distortion, and fastener hole defects affect impact resistance and strength.

This chapter discusses the types of fibers and matrix materials used in ceramic matrix composites and the role of interfacial coatings. It describes the methods used to produce ceramic composites, including powder processing, slurry infiltration and consolidation, polymer infiltration and pyrolysis, chemical vapor infiltration, directed metal oxidation, and liquid silicon infiltration.

Unlike metals, in which fatigue failures are due to a single crack that grows to a critical length, the effects of fatigue in composites are much more distributed and varied. As the chapter explains, there are five major damage mechanisms that contribute to the progression of composite fatigue, those being matrix cracking, fiber breaking, crack coupling, delamination initiation, and delamination growth. The chapter describes each mechanism in detail along with related factors. It also discusses the primary differences between composites and metals, the effect of manufacturing defects, damage tolerance, and testing and certification.

Metal-matrix composites can operate at higher temperatures than their base metal counterparts and, unlike polymer-matrix composites, are nonflammable, do not outgas in a vacuum, and resist attack by solvents and fuels. They can also be tailored to provide greater strength and stiffness, among other properties, in preferred directions and locations. This chapter discusses the processes and procedures used in the production of fiber-reinforced aluminum and titanium metal-matrix composites. It explains how the length and orientation of reinforcing fibers affect the properties and processing characteristics of both aluminum and titanium composites. It also provides information on fiber-metal laminates and the use of different matrix metals and reinforcing materials.

This chapter discusses the use of nondestructive inspection methods, including visual, ultrasonic, radiographic, and thermographic techniques, and the types of flaws and damages they can reveal in composite parts and assemblies. It describes the basic principles behind each method along with best practices and procedures.

This chapter discusses the failure mechanisms associated with fiber-reinforced composites. It begins with a review of fiber-matrix systems and the stress-strain response of unidirectional lamina and both notched and unnotched composite laminate specimens. It then explains how cyclic loading can lead to delamination, the primary failure mode of most composites, and describes some of the methods that have been developed to improve delamination resistance, assess damage tolerance, determine residual strength, and predict failure modes.