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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 1988
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.eihdca.t65220077
EISBN: 978-1-62708-341-6
... discussion of timers, with emphasis on open-loop timing systems. induction heating power-timing devices temperature-control devices vapor-coolant systems water-cooling systems Besides the power supply, other auxiliary pieces of equipment are required in most induction heating installations...
Abstract
This chapter describes two types of auxiliary equipment required in most induction heating installations: cooling systems and device timers. Water- and vapor-based systems used for cooling the power supply and the induction coil are described. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of timers, with emphasis on open-loop timing systems.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110634
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... and structural testing. They are described in more detail later in this chapter. Speed and Power Binning Tests In addition to determining if a chip has a defect or not, it is often required to determine the speed at which the device fully operates. For example, the same microprocessor design may operate...
Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of microprocessor and application specific integrated circuit (IC) testing. It begins with a description of key industry trends that will impact how ICs will be tested in the future. Next, it provides a brief description of the most common tests applied in the IC industry, where technical issues that are causing methodology changes are emphasized. These include functional testing, structural testing, scan-based delay testing, built-in self-testing, memory testing, analog circuit testing, system-on-a-chip testing, and reliability testing. Trends discussed have driven the development of novel focus areas in test and the chapter discusses several of those areas, including test data volume containment, test power containment, and novel methods of defect-based test.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 1988
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.eihdca.t65220143
EISBN: 978-1-62708-341-6
... with heavy-duty contacts that open or close the circuit between the power line and the induction heating generator. Silicon-controlled rectifier devices are relatively small for the amount of power they can control and are available in different forms. They can produce full-power pulses for lengths of time...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the selection, use, and integration of methods to control process variables in induction heating, including control of workpiece and processing temperature and materials handling systems. The discussion of temperature control includes a review of proportional controllers and heat-regulating devices. Integration of control functions is illustrated with examples related to heating of steel slabs, surface hardening of steel parts, vacuum induction melting for casting operations, and process optimization for electric-demand control. Distributed control within larger manufacturing systems is discussed. The chapter also covers nondestructive techniques for process control and methods for process simulation.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110524
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... optimization to obtain acceptable lifetimes. Another example is high-power applications, such as DVD burners used for writing data discs where more power enables faster write times. If all the other premature failure mechanisms mentioned above are avoided, the typical lifetime of the device can be tens...
Abstract
Optoelectronic components can be readily classified as active light-emitting components (such as semiconductor lasers and light emitting diodes), electrically active but non-emitting components, and inactive components. This chapter focuses on the first category, and particularly on semiconductor lasers. The discussion begins with the basics of semiconductor lasers and the material science behind some causes of device failure. It then covers some of the common failure mechanisms, highlighting the need to identify failures as wearout or maverick failures. The chapter also covers the capabilities of many key optoelectronic failure analysis tools. The final section describes the common steps that should be followed so as to assure product reliability of optoelectronic components.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110244
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
...-of-the-art in product offerings. A powerful fault isolation technique that has equally matured over time is Laser Voltage Probing (LVP) [1 - 13] . Originally developed to address the limitations of electron beam probing, LVP has transitioned into a well-established and essential analytical optical technique...
Abstract
Laser Voltage Probing (LVP) is a key enabling technology that has matured into a well-established and essential analytical optical technique that is crucial for observing and evaluating internal circuit activity. This article begins by providing an overview on LVP history and LVP theory, providing information on electro-optical effects and free-carrier effects. It then focuses on commercially available continuous wave LVP systems. Alternative optoelectronic imaging and probing technologies for fault isolation, namely frequency mapping and laser voltage tracing, are also discussed. The subsequent section provides information on the use of Visible Laser Probing. The article closes with some common LVP observations/considerations and limitations and future work concerning LVP.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110219
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... defect localization within 3D packages exemplarily shown in Figure 1 . The technique allows to non-destructively localize resistive opens and electrical shorts within packaged devices by detecting and analyzing defect-related thermal sources caused by the dissipation of electrical power. Figure 1...
Abstract
This chapter describes three approaches for 3D hot-spot localization of thermally active defects by lock-in thermography (LIT). In the first section, phase-shift analysis for analyzing stacked die packages is performed. The second example employs defocusing sequences for the localization of resistive electrical shorts in 3D architectures, and the third operates in cross sectional LIT mode to investigate defects in the insulation liner of Through Silicon Vias. All three approaches allow for a precise localization of thermally active defects in all three spatial dimensions to guide subsequent high-resolution physical analyses.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110180
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... signal intensity on supply voltage is problematic with low power technologies, but a shift of the detected spectrum further into the IR may solve this problem. Fundamental Mechanism Electronic Material Properties and Light Emission Electronic devices can emit light correlated to electronic...
Abstract
Photon emission (PE) is one of the major optical techniques for contactless isolation of functional faults in integrated circuits (ICs) in full electrical operation. This article describes the fundamental mechanisms of PE in silicon based ICs. It presents the opportunities of contactless characterization for the most important electronic device, the MOS - Field Effect Transistor, the heart of ICs and their basic digital element, the CMOS inverter. The article discusses the specification and selection of detectors for proper PE applications. The main topics are image resolution, sensitivity, and spectral range of the detectors. The article also discusses the value and application of spectral information in the PE signal. It describes state of the art IC technologies. Finally, the article discusses the applications of PE in ICs and also I/O devices, integrated bipolar transistors in BiCMOS technologies, and parasitic bipolar effects like latch up.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110513
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... bypassing them electrically. Shorts arise from metal filaments falling into active electronics Partial memory loss occurs due to noise and EMI within the on-board supply system and crosstalk effects. Destruction of sensor devices occur by electrostatic discharge (ESD) under powered operation...
Abstract
Root cause of failure in automotive electronics cannot be explained by the failure signatures of failed devices. Deeper investigations in these cases reveals that a superimposition of impact factors, which can never be represented by usual qualification testing, caused the failure. This article highlights some of the most frequent early life failure types in automotive applications. It describes some of the critical things to be considered while handling packages and printed circuit board layout. The article also provides information on failure anamnesis that shows how to use history, failure signatures, environmental conditions, regional failure occurrences, user profile issues, and more in the failure analysis process to improve root cause findings.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110652
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... The Wunsch-Bell Model for Junction Failure. This relationship describes the behavior of the instantaneous failure power density in a device plotted against the logarithm of the input pulse width ( Fig. 1 ). P F /A = K 1 × t − 1 + K 2 × t − 1 / 2...
Abstract
In the Semiconductor I/C industry, it has been well documented that the proportion of factory and customer field returns attributed to device damage resulting from electrical over-stress (EOS) and electro-static discharge (ESD) can amount to 40 to 50%. This study entailed EOS and ESD simulation using a variety of models, namely the Human Body Model (HBM), the Charged Device Model (CDM) and the so-called Machine Model (MM), and then conducting electrical and physical failure analysis and comparing the results with documented analyses performed on customer field returns and factory failures. It is shown that a distinction can be made between EOS and ESD failures and between the characteristic failure signatures produced by the ESD models. The CDM physical failure location is at the input buffer and in the gate oxide, where as both HBM and MM failures occur mostly in the contacts at the input protection structures.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110111
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... to operate in different mode. Current Imaging for Shorts and Leakages Failures associated with completed circuits can be summarized as shorts, leakage and high resistance (also called resistive opens). For this mode of operation, one powers up the device through the failing pins identified...
Abstract
Magnetic field imaging (MFI), generally understood as mapping the magnetic field of a region or object of interest using magnetic sensors, has been used for fault isolation (FI) in microelectronic circuit failure analysis for almost two decades. Developments in 3D magnetic field analysis have proven the validity of using MFI for 3D FI and 3D current mapping. This article briefly discusses the fundamentals of the technique, paying special attention to critical capabilities like sensitivity and resolution, limitations of the standard technique, sensor requirements and, in particular, the solution to the 3D problem, along with examples of its application to real failures in devices.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110228
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... the pass/fail boundary, and then start the test loop. To precisely choose the 50% fail rate, the bias must be adjusted while monitoring the fail rate during the test loop. Most testers allow the power supply voltage to be changed while running a test pattern in a loop. Timing changes may not be possible...
Abstract
Diagnosing the root cause of a failure is particularly challenging if the symptom of the failure is not consistently observable. This article focuses on Laser Assisted Device Alteration/Soft Defect Localization (LADA/SDL), a global fault isolation technique, for detecting such failures. The discussion begins with a section describing the three steps in LADA/SDL analysis setup: create the test loop with the fail flag and loop trigger, select the laser dwell time, and select the shmoo bias point. An overview of LADA/SDL workflow is then presented followed by a brief section on time-resolved LADA. The closing pages of the article consider in detail SDL laser interaction physics and LADA laser interaction physics.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 April 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.imub.t53720021
EISBN: 978-1-62708-305-8
... inspection Measuring devices Miscellaneous measuring devices Record-keeping devices Macroetching Magnifying Devices Magnifiers can be characterized by magnifying power, focal length, and lens type. Magnifying Power An object appears to increase in size as it is brought closer...
Abstract
Visual inspection is the most important method of inspection of materials. This chapter describes the procedures involved in visual inspection such as identification markings, identification of defects caused by heating problems, scaling of materials, cracking characterization, and measurement of material dimensions. It discusses the mechanisms, advantages, limitations, components, and applications of various visual inspection tools, namely magnifying devices, lighting for visual inspection, measuring devices, miscellaneous measuring equipment, record-keeping devices, and macroetching.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110196
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... performed. Photocurrent generation near defects will alter the power demands of the test device and this can be used to localize structure and defects. Thermal Gradient Generation and Physical Effects TLS uses an NIR laser beam to thermally stimulate ICs. The laser energy is chosen below...
Abstract
This article reviews the basic physics behind active photon injection for local photocurrent generation in silicon and thermal laser stimulation along with standard scanning optical microscopy failure analysis tools. The discussion includes several models for understanding the local thermal effects on metallic lines, junctions, and complete devices. The article also provides a description and case study examples of multiple photocurrent and thermal injection techniques. The photocurrent examples are based on Optical Beam-Induced Current and Light-Induced Voltage Alteration. The thermal stimulus examples are Optical Beam-Induced Resistance Change/Thermally-Induced Voltage Alteration and Seebeck Effect Imaging. Lastly, the article discusses the application of solid immersion lenses to improve spatial resolution.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110666
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... models used by reliability engineers: Arrhenius, Eyring, and power law models. The chapter concludes with information on failure rates and mechanisms and the two techniques for uncovering reliability issues, namely burn-in and outlier screening. Arrhenius models burn-in screening experiment...
Abstract
This chapter surveys both basic quality and basic reliability concepts as an introduction to the failure analysis professional. It begins with a section describing the distinction between quality and reliability and moves on to provide an overview of the concept of experiment design along with an example. The chapter then discusses the purposes of reliability engineering and introduces four basic statistical distribution functions useful in reliability engineering, namely normal, lognormal, exponential, and Weibull. It also provides information on three fundamental acceleration models used by reliability engineers: Arrhenius, Eyring, and power law models. The chapter concludes with information on failure rates and mechanisms and the two techniques for uncovering reliability issues, namely burn-in and outlier screening.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... a 1064 nm wavelength laser stimulation. Note: The laser power is measured from the fiber output and not the actual laser delivered to the junction. It is evident that the induced current is at least an order higher without SIL under the same 1064 nm laser intensity. One solution to circumvent...
Abstract
This article introduces the wafer-level fault localization failure analysis (FA) process flow for an accelerated yield ramp-up of integrated circuits. It discusses the primary design considerations of a fault localization system with an emphasis on complex tester-based applications. The article presents examples that demonstrate the benefits of the enhanced wafer-level FA process. It also introduces the setup of the wafer-level fault localization system. The application of the wafer-level FA process on a 22 nm technology device failing memory test is studied and some common design limitations and their implications are discussed. The article presents a case study and finally introduces a different value-add application flow capitalizing on the wafer-level fault localization system.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.piht2.t55050293
EISBN: 978-1-62708-311-9
... mechanical devices. Maintenance requirements should be determined with a preventive maintenance program established according to the needs of the system. Table 14.1 , presented in Chapter 14, “Quality Control,” in this book, provides a model for maintenance requirements. Radio frequency power supplies...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.piht2.t55050025
EISBN: 978-1-62708-311-9
... provides information on fixtures and work-handling devices, quench systems, and load matching and tuning procedures. induction heat treating power supplies THE ELEMENTS THAT make up an induction heat treating system are shown in Fig. 3.1 . These elements are the cooling water for cooling...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the basic components in an induction heat treating system. It describes the design and operating characteristics of power supplies, load-matching transformers, tuning capacitors, power regulators, controllers, process monitors, and diagnostic systems. It also provides information on fixtures and work-handling devices, quench systems, and load matching and tuning procedures.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 1988
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.eihdca.t65220241
EISBN: 978-1-62708-341-6
... to 50 times less power than mild steel in the same field. However, some power is always absorbed, and water cooling of the shield may be necessary under some circumstances. Typical Applications of Shields Much like flux robbers ( Chapter 8 ), most shields form simple eddy-current loops or minor...
Abstract
To a large extent, the induction coil and its coupling to the workpiece determine the precise heating pattern that is developed. However, it is often desirable to modify this pattern in order to produce a special heating distribution or to increase energy efficiency. At other times, the high heating rates of induction are needed for processing nonconductors. This chapter describes broad methods of accomplishing such objectives: modification of the field of magnetic induction, use of devices to prevent auxiliary equipment or certain portions of a workpiece from being heated, and techniques to apply heating to electrically nonconductive materials. These methods make use of devices such as flux concentrators, shields, and susceptors. The chapter provides a description of the materials for these devices and guidelines for their application.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110209
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
... of the 0° and the -90° image; for isolated heat sources, it is independent of the power of the heat source and emissivity. Thus, the phase signal is inherently emissivity-corrected. The Φ(x,y) values in the phase images measure the time delay of the surface temperature modulation referred...
Abstract
Many defects generate excessive heat during operation; this is due to the power dissipation associated with the excess current flow at the defect site. There are several thermal detection techniques for failure analysis and this article focuses on infrared thermography with lock-in detection, which detects an object's temperature from its infrared emission based on blackbody radiation physics. The basic principles and the interpretation of the results are reviewed. Some typical results and a series of examples illustrating the application of this technique are also shown. Brief sections are devoted to the discussion on liquid-crystal imaging and fluorescent microthermal imaging technique for thermal detection.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mfadr7.t91110279
EISBN: 978-1-62708-247-1
.... With better control over the gate, less voltage is required to turn on the device resulting in improved power efficiency compared to a planar device structure [3] . Industry adopted FinFET MOS structures start at approximately Sub-20nm process nodes. In FinFET structures, charge carriers travel...
Abstract
Transistors are the most important active structure of any semiconductor component. Performance characteristics of such devices within the specifications are key to ensuring proper functionality and long-term reliability of the product. In this article, a summary of the semiconductor technology from design to manufacturing and the characterization methods are discussed. The focus is on two prominent MOS structures: planar MOS device and FinFET device. The article covers the device parameters and device properties that determine the design criteria and the device tuning procedures. The discussion includes the effects of drain induced barrier lowering, velocity saturation, hot carrier degradation, and short channel on these devices.