The physical properties of a material are those properties that can be measured or characterized without the application of force and without changing material identity. This chapter discusses in detail the common physical properties of metals, namely density, electrical properties, thermal properties, magnetic properties, and optical properties. Some physical properties for a number of metals are given in a table.

This chapter provides a thorough review of the crystal structure of beryllium and its elastic, thermal, and nuclear properties. It also includes information on electrical and optical properties and an extensive amount of data in the form of tables and plots.

Intermetallic phase precipitates in aluminum alloys can often be identified without resorting to chemical analysis. Very often the determination can be made based on the shape, color, and refractive properties of the particular phase. This chapter explains how these visual attributes can be observed using metallographic techniques. It describes, and in many cases illustrates, the characteristic shapes, colors, and optical properties associated with aluminum alloy intermetallic phases and how they can be enhanced through selective etching. It provides an atlas of microstructures comparing the effects of selective etching procedures on various phase constituents in cast aluminum-silicon alloys. The compilation of images demonstrates the use of two types of reagents: those that reveal discontinuities in crystal orientation and grain boundaries, and those that reveal differences in chemical composition.

This article is a brief account of various factors pertinent to the characterization of materials and analysis of optical components, namely transmission, haze, yellowness, refractive index, surface irregularity, birefringence, internal contamination, surface gloss, and color. In addition, details on ad hoc tests used for determining the acceptability of a plastic part for its application are provided, along with typical examples.

This chapter provides a general description of materials and methods for manufacturing high-performance composites. The materials covered are polymer matrices and prepreg materials and the methods include infusion processes, composite-toughening methods, matrix-toughening methods, and dispersed-phase toughening. In addition, the chapter provides information on interlayer-toughened composites and honeycomb or foam structure composite materials. It also discusses the processes in optical microscopy of composite materials.

This chapter presents the theory and practice associated with the application of thin films. The first half of the chapter describes physical deposition processes in which functional coatings are deposited on component surfaces using mechanical, electromechanical, or thermodynamic techniques. Physical vapor deposition (PVD) techniques include sputtering, e-beam evaporation, arc-PVD, and ion plating and are best suited for elements and compounds with moderate melting points or when a high-purity film is required. The remainder of the chapter covers chemical vapor deposition (CVD) processes, including atomic layer deposition, plasma-enhanced and plasma-assisted CVD, and various forms of vapor-phase epitaxy, which are commonly used for compound films or when deposit purity is less critical. A brief application overview is also presented.

This chapter discusses the types of sensors used in sheet forming operations and the information they provide. It explains how force sensors protect equipment from overloads due to tool wear, friction, and misfeeds, how displacement and proximity sensors help to prevent die crashes, how acoustic emission, ultrasonic, and eddy current sensors detect tool breakage and part defects such as cracks, and how roller ball and optical sensors measure material flow. It also discusses the role of draw-in, wrinkle, oil-monitoring, and vision sensors and explains how material properties can be derived in real time from various sensor outputs.

Beryllium, despite its relatively simple atomic structure, possesses a wide range of useful engineering properties. It has the highest strength-to-weight ratio and modulus of elasticity among structural metals and is an important alloy addition in copper, nickel, and aluminum alloys. It also has excellent thermal properties, low atomic mass, a small x-ray absorption cross section, and a large neutron scattering cross section. This brief introductory chapter provides an overview of the unique qualities of beryllium along with typical applications and uses.

The second-generation composite materials were added to increase the strain to failure of the primary phase and/or create a dispersed second phase, thereby enhancing the fracture toughness of the thermosetting matrix. These matrices offered novel design capabilities for composites in a variety of aircraft applications. To improve the damage tolerance of composite materials even further, an engineering approach to toughening was used to modify the highly stressed interlayer with either a tougher material or through the use of preformed particles, leading to the third generation of composite materials. This chapter discusses the development, processes, application, advantages, and disadvantages of dispersed-phase toughening of thermoset matrices. Information on the processes of particle interlayer toughening of composite materials is also included.

Beryllium is an extraordinary metal with an unusual combination of physical and mechanical properties. It has low density, high stiffness, and excellent dimensional stability. It is also transparent to x-rays and can be machined to extremely close tolerances. This chapter discusses the properties, compositions, and processing characteristics of beryllium and its alloys. It provides information on powder production and consolidation, commercial designations and grades, wrought products, and forming processes. It also discusses the issue of corrosion, the use of protective treatments and coatings, and health and safety concerns.

This appendix contains detailed micrographs of nickel- and cobalt-base superalloys selected to illustrate the microstructural features described in this book.

Microstructural analysis of the composite matrix is necessary to understand the performance of the part and its long-term durability. This chapter focuses on the microstructural analysis of engineering thermoplastic-matrix composites and the influence of cooling rate and nucleation on the formation of spherulites in high-temperature thermoplastic-matrix carbon-fiber-reinforced composites. It also describes the microstructural analysis of a bio-based thermosetting-matrix natural fiber composite system.

The mechanical properties of steel are strongly influenced by the underlying microstructure, which is readily observed using optical microscopy. This chapter describes common room-temperature steel microstructures and how they are achieved via heat treatment. It discusses the production of hypo- and hypereutectoid steels and the effect of cooling rate on microstructure. It also examines quenched steels and the phase transformations associated with rapid cooling. It describes the development of lath and plate martensite, retained austenite, and bainite and how to identify the various phases. The chapter concludes with a brief review of spheroidized microstructures.

This introductory article describes the various aspects of chemical structure and composition that are important to an understanding of polymer properties and their eventual effect on the end-use performance of engineering plastics, namely thermoplastics and thermosets. The most important properties of polymers and the most significant influences of structure on those properties are covered. The article also includes some general information on the classification and naming of polymers and plastics.

This article describes in more detail the fundamental building-block level, atomic, then expands to a discussion of molecular considerations, intermolecular structures, and finally supermolecular issues. An explanation of important thermal, mechanical, and physical properties of engineering plastics and commodity plastics follows, and the final section briefly outlines the most common plastics manufacturing processes.

This chapter first examines the tempering behavior of plain carbon steels and then that of alloy steels. Next, some correlations are examined which allow estimations of the tempered hardness from the chemical compositions, tempering temperature and tempering time. The chapter then describes the effect of tempering on the mechanical properties of plain carbon steels and the microstructure of plain carbon steels. It shows examples of the structure of plain carbon steels. Additionally, the chapter explains the stages and kinetics of tempering in alloy steels and plain carbon steels. It also describes some methods of estimating the hardness. Finally, the chapter discusses the important problem of temper embrittlement.

Transmitted-light methods reveal more details of the morphology of fiber-reinforced polymeric composites than are observable using any other available microscopy techniques. This chapter describes the various aspects relating to the selection and preparation of ultrathin-section specimens of fiber-reinforced polymeric composites for examination by transmitted-light microscopy techniques. The preparation steps covered are a selection of the rough section, preparation of the rough section for preliminary mounting, grinding and polishing the primary-mount first surface, mounting the first surface on a glass slide, and preparing the second surface (top surface). The optimization of microscope conditions and analysis of specimens by microscopy techniques are also covered. In addition, examples of composite ultrathin sections that are analyzed using transmitted-light microscopy contrast methods are shown throughout.

Analyzing the structure of composite materials is essential for understanding how the part will perform in service. Assessing fiber volume variations, void content, ply orientation variability, and foreign object inclusions helps in preventing degradation of composite performance. This chapter describes the optical microscopy and bright-field illumination techniques involved in analyzing ply terminations, prepreg plies, splices, and fiber orientation to provide the insight necessary for optimizing composite structure and performance.