Phases are distinct states of aggregation of matter and one of the primary leverage points for understanding and applying materials. This chapter discusses the phase nature of metals and alloys, the concept of solid solutions, and the use of phase diagrams. It also describes some of the metallurgical effects of freezing or solidification, including the segregation of solutes and the formation of metal glasses.

This introductory article describes the various aspects of chemical structure and composition that are important to an understanding of polymer properties and their eventual effect on the end-use performance of engineering plastics, namely thermoplastics and thermosets. The most important properties of polymers and the most significant influences of structure on those properties are covered. The article also includes some general information on the classification and naming of polymers and plastics.

This chapter describes the structures, phases, and phase transformations observed in metals and alloys as they solidify and cool to lower temperatures. It begins with a review of the solidification process, covering nucleation, grain growth, and the factors that influence grain morphology. It then discusses the concept of solid solutions, the difference between substitutional and interstitial solid solubility, the effect of alloying elements, and the development of intermetallic phases. The chapter also covers the construction and use of binary and ternary phase diagrams and describes the helpful information they contain.

This chapter explains the distinction between materials and matter through the concept of microstructure. It presents the history of matter science and the establishment of metallography. The chapter provides an overview of the progress of steel technology, progress in synthetic polymers and ceramics, and establishment and development of materials science.

This appendix is a compilation of terms and definitions associated with the processing, microstructure, and properties of powder metal stainless steels.

This chapter introduces many of the key concepts on which metallurgy is based. It begins with an overview of the atomic nature of matter and the forces that link atoms together in crystal lattice structures. It discusses the types of imperfections (or defects) that occur in the crystal structure of metals and their role in mechanical deformation, annealing, precipitation, and diffusion. It describes the concept of solid solutions and the effect of temperature on solubility and phase transformations. The chapter also discusses the formation of solidification structures, the use of equilibrium phase diagrams, the role of enthalpy and Gibb’s free energy in chemical reactions, and a method for determining phase compositions along the solidus and liquidus lines.

This chapter describes the metallurgy, composition, and properties of steels and other alloys. It provides information on the atomic structure of metals, the nature of alloy phases, and the mechanisms involved in phase transformations, including time-temperature effects and the role of diffusion, nucleation, and growth. It also discusses alloying, heat treating, and defect formation and briefly covers condenser tube materials.

After shaping and first-stage binder removal, the component (with remaining backbone binder) is heated to the sintering temperature. Further heating induces densification, evident as dimensional shrinkage, pore rounding, and improved strength. This chapter begins with a discussion on the events that are contributing to sintering densification, followed by a discussion on the driving forces, such as surface energy, and high-temperature atomic motion as well as the factors affecting these processes. The process of microstructure evolution in sintering is then described, followed by a discussion on the tools used for measuring bulk properties to monitor sintering and density. The effects of key parameters, such as particle size, oxygen content, sintering atmosphere, and peak temperature, on the sintered properties are discussed. Further, the chapter covers sintering cycles and sintering practices adopted as well as provides information on dimensional control and related concerns of sintering. Cost issues associated with sintering are finally covered.

This appendix is a compilation of terms and definitions related to metallurgy.

This chapter presents definitions of terms related to the metallurgy and metallographic study of irons and steels.

Ceramics normally have high melting temperatures, excellent chemical stability and, due to the absence of conduction electrons, tend to be good electrical and thermal insulators. They are also inherently hard and brittle, and when loaded in tension, have almost no tolerance for flaws. This chapter describes the applications, properties, and behaviors of some of the more widely used structural ceramics, including alumina, aluminum titanate, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, zirconia, zirconia-toughened alumina (ZTA), magnesia-partially stabilized zirconia (Mg-PSZ), and yttria-tetragonal zirconia polycrystalline (Y-TZP). It also provides information on materials selection, design optimization, and joining methods, and covers every step of the ceramic production process.

This chapter discusses the use of thermoset and thermoplastic resins in polymer matrix composites. It begins by explaining how the two classes of polymer differ and how it impacts their use as matrix materials. It then goes on to describe the characteristics of polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, bismaleimide, cyanate ester, polyimide, and phenolic resins and various toughening methods. The chapter also covers thermoplastic matrix materials and product forms and provides an introduction to the physiochemical tests used to characterize resins and cured laminates.

This chapter discusses the progress that has been made in the development of superalloy operating temperatures, properties, and performance. It also provides forward-looking projections based on advances in process modeling, alloying, and production techniques.

This article covers the thermal analysis and thermal properties of engineering plastics with respect to chemical composition, chain configuration, and/or conformation of the base polymers. The thermal analysis techniques covered are differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, thermomechanical analysis, and rheological analysis. The basic thermal properties covered include thermal conductivity, temperature resistance, thermal expansion, specific heat, and the determination of glass-transition temperatures. The article further describes various factors influencing the determination of service temperature of a material. Representative examples of different types of engineering thermoplastics are discussed in terms of structure and thermal properties. The article also discusses the thermal and related properties of thermoset resin systems.