Inclusions and chemical segregation are factors in many process-induced failures involving steel parts. Inclusions are nonmetallic compounds introduced during production; segregation is a type of chemical partitioning that occurs during solidification. This chapter discusses the origins of segregation and inclusions and their effect on the mechanical properties and microstructure of steel. It explains how to identify various types of inclusions and characteristic segregation patterns, such as banding. It also describes the effect of hot work processing on solidification structure and the chemical variations produced by interdendritic segregation.

This chapter provides perspective on the physical dimensions associated with the microstructure of steel and the instruments that reveal grain size, morphology, phase distributions, crystal defects, and chemical composition, from which properties and behaviors derive. The chapter also reviews the definitions and classifications used to identify and differentiate commercial steels, including the AISI/SAE and UNS designation systems.

This chapter introduces the basic ferrous physical metallurgy principles that need to be understood by the metallographer. The discussion focuses on the variations in microstructures that are generated as a result of the phase transformations that occur during both heat treatment (as in steels) and solidification (as in cast irons). The chapter describes how the development of the iron-carbon phase diagram, coupled with the understanding of the kinetics of phase transformations through the use of isothermal transformation diagram, were breakthroughs in the advancement of ferrous physical metallurgy. Several examples of the morphological features of microstructural constituents in steels are also presented.

Microstructures can be altered intentionally or unintentionally. In some cases, metallographers must diagnose what may have happened to the steel or cast iron based on the microstructural details. This chapter discusses how microstructure in steels and cast irons can be intentionally altered during heat treatment, solidification, and deformation (hot and cold working). Some specific examples are then shown to illustrate what can go wrong through unintentional changes in microstructure, for example, the loss of carbon from the surface of the steel by the process known as decarburization or the buildup of brittle carbides on the grain boundaries of an austenitic stainless steel by the process known as sensitization.

This chapter discusses the important aspects that a metallographer should understand in order to effectively reveal a microstructure. It begins by exploring etching response and how it can be a tool for revealing various microstructural features. The next part of the chapter discusses methods for revealing microstructure in the as-polished (unetched) specimen, then guidelines for selecting and using etchants when needed. The chapter discusses different types of etchants in terms of their ingredients, etching procedure, and major uses. The etchants discussed include basic etchants (nital and picral and their variations) and tint etchants for carbon and low-alloy steels and cast irons, and basic etchants for stainless steels. Finally, information is provided on different illumination methods (differential interference contrast and dark-field illumination) that can be used to highlight certain features in microstructures.

This chapter provides a classification of the types of microstructural changes and transformations and then reviews each type. It presents the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK) equation and explains the thermodynamics of eutectic solidification and eutectoid transformation. An appendix covers growth of eutectoid structure in carburized pearlite.

This chapter explains the distinction between materials and matter through the concept of microstructure. It presents the history of matter science and the establishment of metallography. The chapter provides an overview of the progress of steel technology, progress in synthetic polymers and ceramics, and establishment and development of materials science.

This chapter explains how to achieve accurate, sharp delineation of the microstructure of metals using appropriate etching and contrasting techniques. It covers a variety of methods, including chemical etching, heat tinting, gas contrasting, vapor deposition, magnetic etching, ion bombardment, and dislocation etch pitting.

This appendix contains tables that list the composition and capabilities of etchants that reveal the microstructure of metals and alloys, including aluminum, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, magnesium, molybdenum, nickel, niobium, palladium, platinum, radioactive metals, rare earth metals, rhenium, rhodium, selenium, tellurium, silicon, silver, tantalum, tin, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, and zinc, as well as carbides, oxides, and nitrides.

This chapter discusses the crystal structures of steel and cast iron, the iron-iron carbide equilibrium diagram, microconstituents or phases in the iron-iron carbide phase diagram, the iron-carbon carbide-silicon equilibrium diagram of cast irons, and the influence on microstructure by base elements and alloying elements. Graphitization, cooling rates, and heat treatment effects are covered. There also is discussion on inoculation benefits, flake graphite types and typical applications, evolution of cast iron types, ASTM specification A247 for graphite shapes, and selection of the best molding process. A large table lists typical material choices for various applications.

This chapter serves as a study and guide on the main phase constituents of cast aluminum-silicon alloys, alpha-Al solid solution and Si crystals. The first section focuses on the structure of Al-Si castings in the as-cast state, covering the morphology of the alpha-Al solid solution grains and the process by which they form. It describes how cooling rates, temperature gradients, and local concentrations influence the topology of the crystallization front, and how they play a role in determining the morphology and dispersion degree of the grains observed in cross sections of cast parts. It also describes the mechanism behind dendritic grain crystallization and how factors such as surface tension, capillary length, and lattice symmetry affect dendritic arm size and spacing. The section that follows examines the morphology of the silicon crystals that form in aluminum-silicon castings and its effect on properties and processing characteristics. It discusses the faceted nature of primary Si crystals and the modification techniques used to optimize their shape. It also describes the morphology of the (alpha-Al + Si) eutectic, which can be lamellar or rodlike in shape, and explains how it can be modified through temperature control or alloy additions to improve properties such as tensile strength and plasticity and reduce shrinkage.

This chapter is an atlas of microstructures observed in AlSi7Mg, AlSi11, and Al21CuNiMg modified with either eutectic (strontium, sodium) or hypereutectic (phosphorus) silicon crystals. The microstructure images reveal the as-cast state of gravity castings made in sand and metal molds, before and after modification. The chapter also provides composition data and includes callouts identifying various phase constituents in the interdendritic eutectic microstructure.

In castings, microstructural features are products of metal chemistry and solidification conditions. The microstructural features, excluding defects, that most strongly affect the mechanical properties or aluminum castings are size, form, and distribution of intermetallic phases; dendrite arm spacing; grain size and shape; and eutectic modification and primary phase refinement. This chapter discusses the effects of these microstructural features on properties and methods for controlling them. The chapter concludes with a detailed examination of the refinement of hypereutectic aluminum-silicon alloys.

The microstructure of superalloys is highly complex, with a large number of dispersed intermetallics and other phases that modify alloy behavior through their composition, morphology, and distribution. This chapter provides an overview of the most notable phases, including the matrix phase and geometrically and topologically close-packed phases, and describes how superalloy microstructure can be modified via heat treatments and directional solidification. It also discusses the role of carbides, borides, oxides, and nitrides and the detrimental effects of sulfocarbides.

This chapter discusses the development and use of microstructure models for optimizing superalloy forging operations. It describes how the processes that control grain structure evolution during hot working were used in model formulation and compares predicted microstructures with experimental results.

This chapter describes three approaches for 3D hot-spot localization of thermally active defects by lock-in thermography (LIT). In the first section, phase-shift analysis for analyzing stacked die packages is performed. The second example employs defocusing sequences for the localization of resistive electrical shorts in 3D architectures, and the third operates in cross sectional LIT mode to investigate defects in the insulation liner of Through Silicon Vias. All three approaches allow for a precise localization of thermally active defects in all three spatial dimensions to guide subsequent high-resolution physical analyses.

This chapter describes the ferritic microstructures that form in carbon steels under continuous cooling conditions. It begins with a review of the Dubé classification system for crystal morphologies. It then explains how cooling-rate-induced changes involving carbon atom diffusion and the associated rearrangement of iron atoms produce the wide variety of morphologies and microstructures observed in ferrite. The chapter also describes a classification system developed specifically for ferritic microstructures and uses it to compare common forms of ferrite, including polygonal or equiaxed ferrite, Widmanstatten ferrite, quasi-polygonal or massive ferrite, acicular ferrite, and granular ferrite.

This atlas contains images showing how sintering conditions (time, temperature, and atmosphere) and compaction pressure affect the microstructure of different types of stainless steel. It also includes images of stainless steel powders, fracture surfaces, and test specimens characterized by the presence of compounds, such as oxides, carbides, and nitrides, and various forms of corrosion.