This chapter reviews the fundamentals of stress, strain, and deformation and demonstrates some of the tools and techniques used to analyze how materials and structures respond to tension, compression, bending, and shear. It begins with an overview of the behavior of perfectly elastic and plastic materials and viscous substances. It then describes the stress-strain response of two- and three-dimensional solids, explaining how to determine principle stresses and strains using Mohr’s circle and how to derive equivalent stress and strain using the von Mises relationship. It then goes on to analyze the stress state of load-bearing members, pressurized tubes, and pin-loaded lugs, accounting for the effect of geometric discontinuities, such as cutouts, fillets, and holes, as well as cracks. It also explains how finite element methods are used to solve problems involving complex geometric and loading conditions.

Structural members in a radar antenna system are held together by cadmium-plated high-strength steel bolts, several of which had fractured along the fillet near the head. Investigators determined that the bolts did not seat properly, making contact only at the periphery, which subjected them to high stress concentrations in the fillet region. They also concluded that the intergranular nature of the fracture, as revealed by scanning electron fractography, pointed to hydrogen embrittlement as a contributing factor. This chapter provides a summary of the investigation along with a recommendation to consider adding spring washers to the assembly.

The relationship of stress and strength gradients must be considered simultaneously in analysis of a particular type of fracture. This chapter discusses the principal elastic stress distribution in members of various shapes under different types of pure loads. A basic understanding of both the stress and strength gradients of metal parts with and without stress concentrations and under different types of loading is provided. The chapter also describes the effect of service conditions on applied stresses.

This article provides a high-level overview of thermal spray technologies and their applications and benefits. It is intended to educate members of government, industry, and academia to the benefits of thermal spray technology. The article describes the value of thermal spray technology with examples of application success stories. A few applications critical to thermal spray and market growth are briefly discussed. The article also summarizes the key research areas in thermal spray technology.

This chapter discusses various factors pertinent to the applications of low-pressure permanent mold casting process, namely decorative automotive wheels, critical safety structural components, and chassis components.

This chapter provides a brief account of galvanic corrosion, which occurs when a metal or alloy is electrically coupled to another metal or conducting nonmetal in the same electrolyte. It begins by describing the galvanic series of metals and alloys useful for predicting galvanic relationships, followed by a brief section on polarization of metals or alloys. The effects of area, distance, and geometric shapes on galvanic-corrosion behavior are then discussed. Various alloys susceptible to galvanic corrosion are briefly reviewed. The chapter also discusses various modes of attack that lead to galvanic corrosion, along with methods for predicting and controlling galvanic corrosion.

This chapter reviews the types of friction that are of concern in tribological systems along with their associated causes and effects. It discusses some of the early discoveries that led to the development of friction laws and the understanding that friction is a system effect that can be analyzed based on energy dissipation. It describes the stick-slip behavior observed in wiper blades, the concept of asperities, and the significance of the shape, lay, roughness, and waviness of surfaces in sliding contact. It explains how friction forces are measured and how they are influenced by speed, load, and operating environment. It also covers rolling contact and fluid friction and the effect of lubrication.

In 1924, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) organized the symposium "Corrosion and Heat Resisting Alloys, and Electrical Resistance Alloys." It was the beginning of a major role that ASTM played in the history of stainless steel. This chapter provides information on the papers presented at the 1924 symposium. It also describes the role of ASTM in stainless steel standardization after the 1924 symposium.

This appendix provides information on organizations that issue specifications and standards related to titanium and its alloys.

Joining comprises a large number of processes used to assemble individual parts into a larger, more complex component or assembly. The selection of an appropriate design to join parts is based on several considerations related to both the product and the joining process. Many product design departments now improve the ease with which products are assembled by using design for assembly (DFA) techniques, which seek to ensure ease of assembly by developing designs that are easy to assemble. This chapter discusses the general guidelines for DFA and concurrent engineering rules before examining the various joining processes, namely fusion welding, solid-state welding, brazing, soldering, mechanical fastening, and adhesive bonding. In addition, it provides information on several design considerations related to the joining process and selection of the appropriate process for joining.

This chapter discusses the effect of friction in the context of design. It explains how friction coefficients are determined and how they are used to make sizing and selection decisions. It covers practical issues associated with rolling friction, the use of lubricants, and the tribology of metal, ceramic, and polymer surfaces in contact. It also discusses the nature of rolling friction and provides helpful design guidelines.

Failure mode assessment and assignment (FMA&A) is a tool designed to help organize the evaluation of hypothesized failure modes. This chapter begins by describing the process of preparing an FMA&A. It then describes the follow-on activities to evaluate the hypothesized failure cause. The chapter also provides information on evaluating the hypothesized potential causes.

This chapter covers common types of erosion, including droplet, slurry, cavitation, liquid impingement, gas flow, and solid particle erosion, and major types of wear, including abrasive, adhesive, lubricated, rolling, and impact wear. It also covers special cases such as galling, fretting, scuffing, and spalling and introduces the concepts of tribocorrosion and biotribology.

The design process is the first and most important step in corrosion control. Major savings in operating costs are possible by anticipating corrosion problems so as to provide proper design for equipment before assembly or construction begins. This chapter describes the role of the design team in producing a successful final design, general considerations in corrosion-control design, and design details that accelerate corrosion. The details that must be considered when attempting to control corrosion by design include plant/site location, plant environment, component/assembly shape, fluid movement, surface preparation and coating procedures, and compatibility, insulation, and stress considerations. Design solutions for specific forms of corrosion, namely crevice corrosion, galvanic corrosion, erosion-corrosion, and stress-corrosion cracking, are then considered. A brief section is devoted to the discussion on corrosion allowance used for steel parts subject to uniform corrosion. Finally, the chapter describes the design considerations for using weathering steels.

This chapter discusses the processes and procedures involved in tribotesting, the significance of test parameters and conditions, and practical considerations including test metrics and measurements and the interpretation of wear damage. It also describes the different types of erosion tests in use and common approaches for adhesive wear and abrasion testing.

Distortion failures are readily identified by the inherent change in size and/or shape. They are serious because they can lead to other types of failure or may even cause complete collapse of structures, such as bridges, ladders, beams, and columns. Distortion failures may be classified in different ways. One way is to consider them either as dimensional distortion (growth or shrinkage) or as shape distortion (such as bending, twisting, or buckling). They may also be classified as being either temporary or permanent in nature. This chapter discusses the nature, causes, and effects of all of these types of failures as well as the methods to manage them.

Casting is one of the most economical manufacturing processes for providing shape to components of machinery and is used in a wide range of industries. This chapter is a brief account of the advantages, applications, limitations, and market growth of aluminum casting. It also provides information on the process of conversion of steel and iron parts to aluminum.

This chapter is a brief account of various factors pertinent to the development of an engineering component. The discussion covers the disciplines and interactions of design development, engineering of component design, validation of design and process analysis, and matrix of design and manufacturing elements.

In the second step of the four-step problem-solving process, the failure analysis team should identify all potential failure causes. This chapter discusses the steps involved in five such techniques for identifying potential causes of failure, namely brainstorming, mind mapping, Ishikawa diagrams, the “five whys” technique, and flow charting.