There are several analytical methods available that can be used in-line on whole wafers as well as off-line on de-processed products that are returned from the field. These techniques are surface analytical techniques that can be used to characterize the bulk of the material. The main six methods used in semiconductor industry are: Auger spectroscopy, dynamic secondary ion mass spectroscopy, time of flight static secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), and transmission electron microscope-EDX. This review specifically addresses ToF-SIMS and describes some typical examples of the application of Auger and SEM-EDX.

The management of a failure analysis (FA) laboratory requires a broad range of activities to optimize the efficiency of the operation. The purpose of this article is to stimulate readers to consider the various aspects of FA laboratory operations and their respective business management requirements. The various aspects include: staffing, laboratory organization, lab design and operations, strategic development, financial management, and metrics and measurements. References for further reading and examples of resource materials are also included.

Optoelectronic components can be readily classified as active light-emitting components (such as semiconductor lasers and light emitting diodes), electrically active but non-emitting components, and inactive components. This chapter focuses on the first category, and particularly on semiconductor lasers. The discussion begins with the basics of semiconductor lasers and the material science behind some causes of device failure. It then covers some of the common failure mechanisms, highlighting the need to identify failures as wearout or maverick failures. The chapter also covers the capabilities of many key optoelectronic failure analysis tools. The final section describes the common steps that should be followed so as to assure product reliability of optoelectronic components.

This chapter discusses the various failure analysis techniques for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), focusing on conventional semiconductor manufacturing processes and materials. The discussion begins with a section describing the advances in integration and packaging technologies that have helped drive the further proliferation of MEMS devices in the marketplace. It then shows some examples of the top MEMS applications and quickly discusses the fundamentals of their workings. The next section describes common failure mechanisms along with techniques and challenges in identifying them. The chapter also provides information on the testing of MEMS devices. It covers the two common challenges in sample preparation for MEMS: decapping, or opening up the package, without disturbing the MEMS elements; and removing MEMS elements for analysis. Finally, the chapter discusses the aspects of failure analysis techniques that are of particular interest to MEMS.

This chapter reviews materials issues encountered in joining, including challenges involved in welding of dissimilar metal combinations; joining of plastics by mechanical fastening, solvent and adhesive bonding, and welding; joining of thermoset and thermoplastic composite materials by mechanical fastening, adhesive bonding, and, for thermoplastic composites, welding; the making of glass-to-metal seals; and joining of oxide and nonoxide ceramics to themselves and to metals by solid-state processes and by brazing. The classification, types, applications, and the mechanism of each of these methods are covered. The factors influencing joint integrity and the main considerations in welding dissimilar metal combinations are also discussed.

This chapter covers the basic aspects of composite materials. It describes the arrangement, form, and function of their constituent materials and explains how they perform better in combination than on their own. It discusses the directional nature of isotropic, anisotropic, and orthotropic materials, the orientation of plies in unidirectional (lamina) and quasi-isotropic (laminate) lay-ups, and the dominant role of fibers in determining strength, stiffness, and other lamina properties. The chapter also compares the engineering attributes of composites with those of metals and includes application examples.

This appendix is a compilation of suggested analysis methods for suspected component failure causes.

This article presents six case studies of failures with steel forgings. The case studies covered are crankshaft underfill; tube bending; spade bit; trim tear; upset forging; and avoidance of flow through, lap, and crack. The case studies illustrate difficulties encountered in either cold forging or hot forging in terms of preforge factors and/or discontinuities generated by the forging process. Supporting topics that are discussed in the case studies include validity checks for buster and blocker design, lubrication and wear, mechanical surface phenomenon, forging process design, and forging tolerances. Wear, plastic deformation processes, and laws of friction are introduced as a group of subjects that have been considered in the case studies.

This chapter describes three approaches for 3D hot-spot localization of thermally active defects by lock-in thermography (LIT). In the first section, phase-shift analysis for analyzing stacked die packages is performed. The second example employs defocusing sequences for the localization of resistive electrical shorts in 3D architectures, and the third operates in cross sectional LIT mode to investigate defects in the insulation liner of Through Silicon Vias. All three approaches allow for a precise localization of thermally active defects in all three spatial dimensions to guide subsequent high-resolution physical analyses.

The scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) is an important tool for development of improved molded and flip chip packages. The SAM used for integrated circuit inspection is a hybrid instrument with characteristics of both the Stanford SAM and the C-scan recorder. This chapter presents the historical development of SAM for integrated circuit package inspection, SAM theory, and analysis considerations. Case studies are presented to illustrate the practical applications of SAM. Other non-destructive imaging tools are briefly discussed, as well as SAM challenges and methods including spectral signature analysis and GHz-SAM.

This article is a compilation of terms and definitions related to failure analysis that have been addressed in the proceedings of the International Symposium for Testing and Failure Analysis.

This chapter briefly outlines some of the basic aspects of failure analysis, describing some of the basic steps and major concerns in conducting a failure analysis. A brief review of failure types from fracture, distortion, wear-assisted failure, and environmentally assisted failure (corrosion) is also provided.

As semiconductor feature sizes have shrunk, the technology needed to encapsulate modern integrated circuits has expanded. Due to the various industry changes, package failure analyses are becoming much more challenging; a systematic approach is therefore critical. This article proposes a package failure analysis flow for analyzing open and short failures. The flow begins with a review of data on how the device failed and how it was processed. Next, non-destructive techniques are performed to document the condition of the as-received units. The techniques discussed are external optical inspection, X-ray inspection, scanning acoustic microscopy, infrared (IR) microscopy, and electrical verification. The article discusses various fault isolation techniques to tackle the wide array of failure signatures, namely IR lock-in thermography, magnetic current imaging, time domain reflectometry, and electro-optical terahertz pulse reflectometry. The final step is the step-by-step inspection and deprocessing stage that begins once the defect has been imaged.

Post-mortem analysis of photovoltaic modules that have degraded performance is essential for improving the long term durability of solar energy. This article focuses on a general procedure for analyzing a failed module. The procedure includes electrical characterization followed by thermal imaging such as forward bias, reverse bias, and lock-in, and emission imaging such as electroluminescence and photoluminescence imaging.

This chapter focuses on what can cause a system to fail and addresses the challenge in approaching a system failure. It then examines the steps involved in the four-step problem-solving process: defining the problem, identifying all potential failure causes and evaluating the likelihood of each, identifying the potential solutions, and identifying the best solution. The chapter concludes by describing the responsibilities of a failure analysis team.

This chapter focuses on the failure aspects of tool steels. The discussion covers the classification, chemical composition, main characteristics, and several failures of tool steels and their relation to heat treatment. The tool steels covered are hot work, cold work, plastic mold, and high-speed tool steels.

This chapter provides an overview of the possible mechanisms of failure for heat treated steel components and discusses the techniques for examining fractures, ductile and brittle failures, intergranular failure mechanisms, and fatigue. It begins with a description of the general sources of component failure. This is followed by a section on the stages of a failure analysis, which can proceed one after the other or occur at the same time. These stages of analysis are collection of background data, preliminary visual examination, nondestructive testing, selection and preservation of specimens, mechanical testing, macroexamination, microexamination, metallographic examination, determination of the fracture mechanism, chemical analysis, exemplar testing, and analysis and writing the report. The chapter ends with a discussion on various processes involved in the determination of the fracture mechanism.