There are several analytical methods available that can be used in-line on whole wafers as well as off-line on de-processed products that are returned from the field. These techniques are surface analytical techniques that can be used to characterize the bulk of the material. The main six methods used in semiconductor industry are: Auger spectroscopy, dynamic secondary ion mass spectroscopy, time of flight static secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), and transmission electron microscope-EDX. This review specifically addresses ToF-SIMS and describes some typical examples of the application of Auger and SEM-EDX.

This chapter describes some of the most effective tools for investigating boiler tube failures, including scanning electron microscopy, optical emission spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. It explains how the tools work and what they reveal. It also covers the topic of image analysis and its application in the measurement of grain size, phase/volume fraction, delta ferrite and retained austenite, inclusion rating, depth of carburization/decarburization, scale thickness, pearlite banding, microhardness, and hardness profiles. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion on the effect of scaling and deposition and how to measure it.

This chapter covers coatings and treatments that are used to improve the friction and wear behaviors of materials. It describes modifications that work by hardening contacting surfaces, including heat treating, vacuum coating, thermal spray, and plating, and those that separate or lubricate surfaces, including solid film, chemical conversion, and vacuum coatings, surface oiling and texturing, and lubricating platings. It compares and contrasts methods based on thickness and depth and their relative effect on friction, erosion, and wear.

This chapter discusses the engineering significance of steel and briefly describes its chemical composition, crystal structure, Fe-C phases, and associated characterization techniques.

There is a fairly wide variety of different tool steels for different applications. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) classification of tool steels includes seven major categories: water-hardening tool steels, shock-resisting tool steels, cold work tool steels, hot work tool steels, low-alloy special-purpose tool steels, mold tool steels, high-speed tool steels, and powder metallurgy tool steels. This chapter provides discusses the manufacturing process, composition, properties, types, and applications of these tool steels and other cutting tool materials, such as cemented carbides. It also describes the methods of applying coatings to cutting tools to improve tool life.

All materials are susceptible to corrosion or some form of environmental degradation. Although no single material is suitable for all applications, usually there are a variety of materials that will perform satisfactorily in a given environment. The intent of this chapter is to review the corrosion behavior of the major classes of metals and alloys as well as some nonmetallic materials, describe typical corrosion applications, and present some unique weaknesses of various types of materials. It also aims to point out some unique material characteristics that may be important in material selection, and discuss, where appropriate, the characteristic forms of corrosion that attack specific materials. The materials addressed in this chapter include carbon steels, weathering steels, and alloy steels; nickel, copper, aluminum, titanium, lead, magnesium, tin, zirconium, tantalum, niobium, and cobalt and their alloys; polymers; and other nonmetallic materials, including rubber, carbon and graphite, and woods.

The challenge of materials selection is to achieve adequate performance at the lowest possible cost. Corrosion resistance is not the only property to be considered in making materials selections. Typical requirements and some of the procedures involved in making a selection and some of the factors that must be considered when determining the corrosion performance of a given material are listed in this chapter. The various steps that might be included in a materials selection process are then examined. These include a review of operating conditions and design, the selection of candidate materials, the in-depth evaluation of each candidate material, fabrication requirements, follow-up monitoring, and final materials selection. Material considerations such as cost, materials properties, and processing and fabrication requirements are subsequently covered. Finally, the chapter provides information on materials selection under general corrosion conditions and under conditions of localized corrosion forms such as pitting, crevice corrosion, and stress-corrosion cracking.

This chapter addresses some of the challenges involved in materials selection, providing context for much of the information presented in the book. It describes a typical four-step design scenario, noting material-related considerations and information needs. It explains how design decisions are complicated by the interconnected nature of material properties, design geometry, and manufacturing requirements and effects. The chapter also assesses the design impact of several materials and discusses codes, standards, and specifications.

This chapter covers the basic aspects of composite materials. It describes the arrangement, form, and function of their constituent materials and explains how they perform better in combination than on their own. It discusses the directional nature of isotropic, anisotropic, and orthotropic materials, the orientation of plies in unidirectional (lamina) and quasi-isotropic (laminate) lay-ups, and the dominant role of fibers in determining strength, stiffness, and other lamina properties. The chapter also compares the engineering attributes of composites with those of metals and includes application examples.

This chapter describes the formability and forming characteristics of low-carbon sheet steels, coated sheet steels, stainless steels, and aluminum and magnesium alloys. It provides property data as well as flow stress curves for numerous grades of each material and explains how composition, microstructure, and processing methods influence forming behaviors.

Boilers are often classified based on the maximum operating temperature and pressure for which they are designed. Classifications, in ascending order, are subcritical, supercritical, ultra-supercritical, and to advanced ultra-supercritical. At each higher operating point comes greater efficiency, as well as greater demand on construction materials. This chapter discusses the primary requirements for boiler tube materials, including oxidation and corrosion resistance, fatigue strength, thermal conductivity, and the ability to resist creep and rupture. It also provides information on various steels and alloys, covering cost, engineering specifications, and ease of use.

This appendix contains a table listing density, thermal conductivity, linear expansion, electrical resistivity, and Young's modulus of various materials.

This chapter reviews materials issues encountered in joining, including challenges involved in welding of dissimilar metal combinations; joining of plastics by mechanical fastening, solvent and adhesive bonding, and welding; joining of thermoset and thermoplastic composite materials by mechanical fastening, adhesive bonding, and, for thermoplastic composites, welding; the making of glass-to-metal seals; and joining of oxide and nonoxide ceramics to themselves and to metals by solid-state processes and by brazing. The classification, types, applications, and the mechanism of each of these methods are covered. The factors influencing joint integrity and the main considerations in welding dissimilar metal combinations are also discussed.

Product design requires an understanding of the mechanical properties of materials, much of which is based on tensile testing. This chapter describes how tensile tests are conducted and how to extract useful information from measurement data. It begins with a review of the different types of test equipment used and how they compare in terms of loading force, displacement rate, accuracy, and allowable sample sizes. It then discusses the various ways tensile measurements are plotted and presents examples of each method. It examines a typical load-displacement curve as well as engineering and true stress-strain curves, calling attention to certain points and features and what they reveal about the test sample and, in some cases, the cause of the behavior observed. It explains, for example, why some materials exhibit discontinuous yielding while others do not, and in such cases, how to determine when yielding begins. It also explains how to determine other properties via tensile tests, including ductility, toughness, and modulus of resilience.