This chapter discusses thermoplastic composite fabrication processes and related equipment and procedures. The discussion covers consolidation and thermoforming operations as well as joining methods.

This chapter discusses material-related problems associated with coal-fired burners. It explains how high temperatures affect heat-absorbing surfaces in furnace combustion areas and in the convection pass of superheaters and reheaters. It describes how low-NOx combustion technology, intended to reduce NOx emissions, accelerates tube wall wastage. It also covers circumferential cracking in furnace waterwalls, thermal fatigue cracking induced by waterlances and water cannons, superheater-reheater corrosion, and erosion in fluidized-bed boilers.

This chapter summarizes the progress that has been made in the study of high-entropy alloy (HEA) systems and the process-structure-property relationships that define them. It describes the various ways HEAs can be strengthened and explains how alloying elements influence tensile and yield strength, fracture toughness, and fracture strength. It discusses the stages of plastic deformation in HEAs and the role of dislocations and twinning in the evolution of microstructure. It reviews some of the work that has been done on fatigue behaviors and the methods developed to assess fatigue performance. It discusses the influence of defects on fatigue life, the effect of temperature and grain size on fatigue-crack propagation, and the role of nanotwinning in crack-growth retardation. It describes the methods used to produce HEAs in bulk and powder form and to apply them as protective coatings and films. It also identifies potential applications based on properties such as strength, hardness, density, wear resistance, high-temperature stability, and biocompatibility.

This chapter describes the processes involved in the fabrication of wrought and cast metal products. It discusses deformation processes including bending and forming, material removal processes such as milling, cutting, and grinding, and joining methods including welding, soldering, and brazing. It also discusses powder consolidation, rolling, drawing and extrusion, and common forging methods.

This chapter is a compilation of terms and definitions related to surface engineering for corrosion and wear resistance.

Casting is the most economical processing route for producing titanium parts, and unlike most metals, the properties of cast titanium are on par with those of wrought. This chapter covers titanium melting and casting practices -- including vacuum arc remelting, consumable electrode arc melting, electron beam hearth melting, rammed graphite mold casting, sand casting, investment casting, hot isostatic pressing, weld repair, and heat treatment -- along with related equipment, process challenges, and achievable properties and microstructures. It also explains how titanium parts are produced from powders and how the different methods compare with each other and with conventional production techniques. The methods covered include powder injection molding, spray forming, additive manufacturing, blended elemental processing, and rapid solidification.

This chapter provides details on powder-binder processing for three materials, namely precipitation-hardened 17-4 PH stainless steel, cemented carbides, and alumina. The types of powders, binders, feedstock, shaping processes, debinding, sintering cycles, compositions, microstructure, distortion, postsintering treatments, and mechanical properties are presented for each. The shaping options include powder-binder approaches such as binder jetting, injection molding, extrusion, slip and slurry casting, centrifugal casting, tape casting, and additive manufacturing. Sintering options are outlined with respect to attaining high final properties.

A working knowledge of diffusion is necessary to understand and predict the behavior of metals and alloys during manufacturing and in certain types of service. This chapter covers the fundamentals of diffusion in solids and some of the applications in which diffusion plays a role. It discusses the mechanisms behind interstitial, substitutional, grain boundary, and surface diffusion, the derivation and use of Fick’s laws, and the basic principles of diffusion coating processes, including carburizing, nitriding, nitrocarburizing, cyaniding, carbonitriding, boriding, aluminizing, siliconizing, chromizing, vanadizing, and titanizing. It also discusses diffusion bonding and presents several approaches for dealing with oxide barrier problems.

This chapter discusses the use of coating methods and materials and their impact on corrosion and wear behaviors. It provides detailed engineering information on a wide range of processes, including organic, ceramic, and hot dip coating, metal plating and cladding, and the use of weld overlays, thermal spraying, and various deposition technologies.

Organic coatings (paints and plastic or rubber linings), metallic coatings, and nonmetallic inorganic coatings (conversion coatings, cements, ceramics, and glasses) are used in applications requiring corrosion protection. These coatings and linings may protect substrates by three basic mechanisms: barrier protection, chemical inhibition, and galvanic (sacrificial) protection. This chapter begins with a section on organic coating and linings, providing a detailed account of the steps involved in the coating process, namely, design and selection, surface preparation, application, and inspection and quality assurance. The next section discusses the methods by which metals, and in some cases their alloys, can be applied to almost all other metals and alloys: electroplating, electroless plating, hot dipping, thermal spraying, cladding, pack cementation, vapor deposition, ion implantation, and laser processing. The last section focuses on nonmetallic inorganic coatings including ceramic coating materials, conversion coatings, and anodized coatings.

This appendix is a compilation of terms and definitions related to metallurgy.

Forging is a deformation process achieved through the application of compressive stresses. During the stroke, pressures and velocities are continuously changing and the initial lubricant supply must suffice for the duration of the operation. Lubricant residues and pickup products also change with time, further complicating the analysis of friction and wear. This chapter provides a qualitative and quantitative overview of the mechanics and tribology of forging in all of its forms. It discusses the effects of friction, pressures, forces, and temperature on the deformation and flow of metals in open-die, closed-die, and impression-die forging and in back extrusion and piercing operations. It presents various ways to achieve fluid-film lubrication in upset forging processes and examines the cause of barreling, defect formation, and folding in the upsetting of cylinders, rings, and slabs. It also explains how to evaluate lubricants, friction, and wear under hot, cold, and warm forging conditions and how to extend die life and reduce defects when processing different materials.

Polymer-matrix composites are among the lightest structural materials in use today. They are also highly resistant to corrosion and fatigue and their load-carrying capabilities, such as strength and stiffness, can be tailored for specific applications. This chapter discusses the primary advantages and disadvantages of polymer-matrix composites, how they are produced, and how they perform in different applications. It describes the construction of laminates, the fibers and resins used, and the methods by which they are combined. It explains how strength, modulus, toughness, and high-temperature and corrosion behaviors are determined by the orientation, shape, and spacing of fibers, the number of plies, resin properties, and consolidation and forming methods. The chapter also covers secondary fabrication processes, such as thermoforming, machining, and joining, as well as production equipment and product forms, and include guidelines for optimizing tradeoffs when selecting fibers, resins, and production techniques.