This chapter describes surface modification processes that go beyond conventional heat treatments, including plasma nitriding, plasma carburizing, low-pressure carburizing, ion implantation, physical and chemical vapor deposition, salt bath coating, and transformation hardening via high-energy laser and electron beams. The chapter compares methods and includes several example applications.

Organic coatings (paints and plastic or rubber linings), metallic coatings, and nonmetallic inorganic coatings (conversion coatings, cements, ceramics, and glasses) are used in applications requiring corrosion protection. These coatings and linings may protect substrates by three basic mechanisms: barrier protection, chemical inhibition, and galvanic (sacrificial) protection. This chapter begins with a section on organic coating and linings, providing a detailed account of the steps involved in the coating process, namely, design and selection, surface preparation, application, and inspection and quality assurance. The next section discusses the methods by which metals, and in some cases their alloys, can be applied to almost all other metals and alloys: electroplating, electroless plating, hot dipping, thermal spraying, cladding, pack cementation, vapor deposition, ion implantation, and laser processing. The last section focuses on nonmetallic inorganic coatings including ceramic coating materials, conversion coatings, and anodized coatings.

Surface modification technologies improve the performance of tool steels. This chapter discusses the processes involved in oxide coatings, nitriding, ion implantation, chemical and physical vapor deposition processing, salt bath coating, laser and electron beam surface modification, and boride coatings that improve the performance of hot-work and high-speed tool steels.

This chapter provides practical information on surface treatments that work by altering the surface chemistry of metals and alloys. It discusses the use of phosphate and chromate conversion coatings as well as anodizing, steam oxidation, diffusion coatings, and pack cementation. The chapter also covers ion implantation and laser alloying.

Cleaning procedures serve to remove scale, tarnish films, and other contaminants that form or are otherwise deposited on the surface of titanium during processing operations such as hot working and heat treatment. This chapter explains what makes titanium susceptible to the formation of scale and how it can be removed via belt grinding, abrasive blasting, and molten salt descaling baths. It also discusses the role of acid pickling, barrel finishing, polishing, and buffing as well as the use of chemical conversion coatings and protective platings.

This chapter compares and contrasts surface-engineering processes based on process availability, corrosion and wear performance, distortion effects, penetration depth or attainable coating thickness, and cost. It provides both quantitative and qualitative information as well as measured property values.

This chapter covers a wide range of finishing and coating operations, including cleaning, honing, polishing and buffing, and lapping. It discusses the use of rust-preventative compounds, conversion coatings, and plating metals as well as weld overlay, thermal spray, and ceramic coatings and various pack cementation and deposition processes. It also discusses the selection and use of industrial paints and paint application methods.

This chapter provides helpful guidelines for selecting a surface treatment for a given application. It identifies important design factors and applicable treatments for common design scenarios, materials, and operating conditions. It explains why heat treatments and finishing operations may be required before or after processing and how to estimate or predict coating thickness, case depth, hardness, and the likelihood of distortion. It also addresses related issues and considerations such as part handling and fixturing, surface preparation and cleaning requirements, processability, aesthetics, and the influence of design features.

This article discusses the general purpose of alloying and identifies some of the material properties and behaviors that can be improved by adding various elements to the base metal. It explains how alloying can make metals stronger and more resistant to corrosion and wear as well as easier to cast, weld, form, and machine. It also discusses some of the alloying techniques that have been developed to address problems stemming from dissimilarities between the base metal and alloying or inoculate material.

This chapter begins with a brief review of the different types of surface treatments and coatings used in industry and their effect on properties and performance. It then discusses the importance of corrosion and wear treatments and the consequences of failing to properly implement them in critical industries such as mining, energy production, transportation, and mineral and chemical processing. The chapter also describes basic approaches to dealing with corrosion and wear in steel.

With the commercialization of heavier and lighter ion beams, adoption of focused ion beam (FIB) use for analysis of challenging regions of interest (ROI) has grown. In this chapter, the authors focus on highlighting commercially available and complementary FIB technologies and their implementation challenges and application trends.

Titanium and its alloys are used chiefly for their high strength-to-weight ratio, but they also have excellent corrosion resistance, better even than stainless steels. Titanium, as the chapter explains, is protected by a tenacious oxide film that forms rapidly on exposed surfaces. The chapter discusses the factors that influence the growth and quality of this naturally passivating film, particularly the role of oxidizing and inhibiting species, temperature, and alloying elements. It also discusses the effect of different corrosion processes and environments as well as hydrogen, stress-corrosion cracking, liquid metal embrittlement, and surface treatments.

This chapter discusses the use of coating methods and materials and their impact on corrosion and wear behaviors. It provides detailed engineering information on a wide range of processes, including organic, ceramic, and hot dip coating, metal plating and cladding, and the use of weld overlays, thermal spraying, and various deposition technologies.

Amorphous alloys, because of their lack of crystallographic slip planes, are assumed to be insensitive to the selective corrosion attack that causes stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) in crystalline alloys. However, under certain conditions, melt-spun amorphous alloys have proven vulnerable to SCC due to hydrogen embrittlement. This chapter presents findings from several studies on this phenomenon, describing test conditions as well as cracking and fracture behaviors. It also discusses the effect of deformation on corrosion behavior, particularly for alloys without strongly passivating elements.

The need for precise targeted interactive surgery on boards or modules is the main driver of backside preparation technology. This article assists the analyst in making decisions on backside thinning and polishing requirements. Thinning of the substrates can be accomplished by flat lapping, laser assisted chemical etch, plasma reactive ion etch, and CNC based milling and polishing. The article discusses the general characteristics, key principles, advantages, and disadvantages of these processes. It also contains case studies that illustrate the application of these processes to ceramic cavity devices, injection molded parts, and ball grid arrays.

This chapter summarizes the progress that has been made in the study of high-entropy alloy (HEA) systems and the process-structure-property relationships that define them. It describes the various ways HEAs can be strengthened and explains how alloying elements influence tensile and yield strength, fracture toughness, and fracture strength. It discusses the stages of plastic deformation in HEAs and the role of dislocations and twinning in the evolution of microstructure. It reviews some of the work that has been done on fatigue behaviors and the methods developed to assess fatigue performance. It discusses the influence of defects on fatigue life, the effect of temperature and grain size on fatigue-crack propagation, and the role of nanotwinning in crack-growth retardation. It describes the methods used to produce HEAs in bulk and powder form and to apply them as protective coatings and films. It also identifies potential applications based on properties such as strength, hardness, density, wear resistance, high-temperature stability, and biocompatibility.

The chapter covers various aspects of biotribology in the context of dental care, orthopedic implants, haptics, eyewear, and stents and fixation devices. It also addresses the issue of biocompatibility and the effects of friction and contact pressure on skin.

This appendix provides references for additional information on titanium and its alloys. The references are organized by topic based on the author’s recommendations. Topics include physical metallurgy, corrosion, processing, applications and developments, and general background.

This chapter describes the most effective ways to improve the corrosion resistance of sintered stainless steels, including increasing alloy content, optimizing the sintering process, and the use of surface treatments and modifications.