This chapter discusses the design and operation of hydraulic presses. It begins by describing the role of each major component in a hydraulic system. It then explains the difference between pump-driven and accumulator-driven presses and the types of applications for which are suited. The chapter goes on to describe the load, energy, and time-dependent characteristics of hydraulic presses and the factors that determine accuracy. It also explains how hydraulic presses are used for deep drawing, fine blanking, and hydroforming as well as warm forming and hot stamping operations.

This chapter provides an overview of the blanking process and the forces and stresses involved. It discusses the factors that affect part quality and tool life, including punch and die geometry, stagger, clearance, and wear as well as punch velocities, misalignment, and snap-thru forces. It also discusses ultra-high-speed blanking, fine blanking, and shearing, and the use finite-element simulations to predict part edge quality.

This chapter discusses the design and operation of electromechanical servo-drive presses. It begins by comparing the operating flexibility of servo-press drives with that of their conventional counterparts. It then explains the difference between direct-drive and belt and screw-driven servo presses and describes some of the innovations and improvements made possible with high-torque servo motors. The chapter provides examples of how servo presses are used in blanking, warm forming, and other applications and compares the operating characteristics of two 1100-ton presses, one driven by servo motors, the other by a mechanical crank.

This chapter describes sheet metal forming operations, including cutting, blanking, piercing, and bending as well as deep drawing, spinning, press-brake and stretch forming, fluid forming, and drop hammer and electromagnetic forming. It also discusses the selection and use of die materials and lubricants along with superplastic forming techniques.

The increased use of advanced high-strength steels to achieve weight reduction in automobiles has led to the development of innovative tool designs and manufacturing processes. Among these technologies and processes are: real-time process control, active drawbeads, active binders, flexible binders, and flexible rolling. This chapter presents the implementation, advantages, disadvantages, and applications of these processes and technologies.

This chapter provides a concise, design-oriented summary of more than 30 sheet forming processes within the categories of bending and flanging, stretch forming, deep drawing, blank preparation, and incremental and hybrid forming. Each summary includes a description and diagram of the process and a bullet-point list identifying relevant equipment, materials, variations, and applications. The chapter also discusses critical process variables, interactions, and components and the classification of sheet metal parts based on geometry.

Gear manufacture depends on machinery available, design specifications or requirements, cost of production, and type of material from which the gear is to be made. This chapter discusses the processes involved in methods for manufacturing gears, namely casting, forming, and forging.

This chapter describes the general characteristics of two commonly classified metalworking processes, namely hot working and cold working. Primary metalworking processes, such as the bulk deformation processes used to conduct the initial breakdown of cast ingots, are always conducted hot. Secondary processes, which are used to produce the final product shape, are conducted either hot or cold. The chapter discusses the primary objectives, principal types, advantages, and disadvantages of both primary and secondary metalworking processes. They are rolling, forging, extrusion, sheet metal forming processes, blanking and piercing, bending, stretch forming, drawing, rubber pad forming, and superplastic forming.

This appendix is a glossary of terms and definitions associated with sheet metal forming.

This chapter describes the equipment and processes used to form titanium alloy parts. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of hot and cold forming, the factors that influence formability, and the effect of forming temperature and lubricants. It describes common processes, including brake forming, stretch forming, deep drawing, and spin forming as well as roll forming, drop-hammer forming, tube bulging and bending, and superplastic forming. It also discusses dimpling and joggling and the use of hot sizing to correct springback.

This chapter discusses the forming characteristics of dual-phase (DP) and transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels. It begins with a review of the mechanical behavior of advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) and how they respond to stress-strain conditions associated with deformation processes such as stretching, bending, flanging, deep drawing, and blanking. It then describes the complex tribology of AHSS forming operations, the role of lubrication, the effect of tool steels and coatings, and the force and energy requirements of various forming presses. It also discusses the cause of springback and explains how to predict and compensating for its effects.

This chapter discusses the equipment and processes used to convert titanium billet and bar into useful shapes or more refined product forms. These secondary working operations include open-die, closed-die, hot-die and isothermal forging as well as ring rolling and extruding. The chapter describes each method in detail and how it affects the microstructure and mechanical properties of various titanium alloys. It also discusses the propensity of titanium to react with oxygen and hydrogen when heated and explains how to mitigate the effects.

This chapter discusses bulk deformation processes and how they are used to reshape metals and refine solidification structures. It begins by describing the differences between hot and cold working along with their respective advantages. It then discusses various forging methods, including open-die and closed-die forging, hot upset and roll forging, high-energy-rate forging, ring rolling, rotary swaging, radial and orbital forging, isothermal and hot-die forging, precision forging, and cold forging. The chapter also includes information on cold and hot extrusion and drawing operations.

The vast majority of beryllium products are manufactured from blocks, forms, or billets of compacted powder that are machined or worked into shape. This chapter describes the metalworking processes used, including rolling, forming, forging, extrusion, drawing, and spinning. It covers the qualitative and quantitative aspects of each process and provides examples showing how they are implemented and the results that can be achieved. The chapter also discusses the issue of beryllium’s low formability and describes some of the advancements that have been made in near-net shape processing.

Beryllium is an extraordinary metal with an unusual combination of physical and mechanical properties. It has low density, high stiffness, and excellent dimensional stability. It is also transparent to x-rays and can be machined to extremely close tolerances. This chapter discusses the properties, compositions, and processing characteristics of beryllium and its alloys. It provides information on powder production and consolidation, commercial designations and grades, wrought products, and forming processes. It also discusses the issue of corrosion, the use of protective treatments and coatings, and health and safety concerns.

Powder metallurgy (P/M) is a flexible metalworking process for the production of gears. The P/M process is capable of producing close tolerance gears with strengths to 1240 MPa at economical prices in higher volume quantities. This chapter discusses the capabilities, limitations, process advantages, forms, tolerances, design, tooling, performance, quality control, and inspection of P/M gear manufacture. In addition, it presents examples that illustrate the versatility of the P/M process for gear manufacture.

This chapter describes joining by forming processes including riveting, clinching, crimping, and dieless joining techniques. It also discusses the fatigue behavior of clinched joints and the results of fatigue tests that compare clinched and spot welded joints.

This chapter discusses the similarities and differences of forging and forming processes used in the production of wrought superalloy parts. Although forming is rarely concerned with microstructure, forging processes are often designed with microstructure in mind. Besides shaping, the objectives of forging may include grain refinement, control of second-phase morphology, controlled grain flow, and the achievement of specific microstructures and properties. The chapter explains how these objectives can be met by managing work energy via temperature and deformation control. It also discusses the forgeability of alloys, addresses problems and practical issues, and describes the forging of gas turbine disks. On the topic of forming, the chapter discusses the processes involved, the role of alloying elements, and the effect of alloy condition on formability. It addresses practical concerns such as forming speed, rolling direction, rerolling, and heat treating precipitation-hardened alloys. It presents several application examples involving carbide-hardened cobalt-base and other superalloys, and it concludes with a discussion on superplasticity and its adaptation to commercial forging and forming operations.