This appendix explains how to identify crystallographic planes and directions. It shows how Miller indices, a system for specifying crystallographic planes within a unit cell, are determined for cubic and hexagonal systems. It also explains how x-ray diffraction techniques are used in the study of crystalline structures.

Bonding in solids may be classified as either primary or secondary bonding. Methods of primary bonding include the metallic, ionic, and covalent bonds. This chapter discusses and provides a comparison of the properties of these bonds. This is followed by a discussion on crystalline structure, providing information on space lattices and crystal systems, hexagonal close-packed systems, and face-centered and body-centered cubic systems. The chapter then covers slip systems and closes with a brief section on allotropic transformations that occur at a constant temperature during either heating or cooling.

This appendix explains how to calculate atomic packing factors, lattice parameters, and coordination numbers for cubic crystal structures, including simple, body-centered, and face-centered cubic systems. It also addresses hexagonal close-packed systems.

Deformation within a crystal lattice is governed principally by the presence of dislocations, which are two-dimensional defects in the lattice structure. Slip from shear stress is the most common deformation mechanism within crystalline lattices of metallic materials, although deformation of crystal lattices can also occur by other processes such as twinning and, in special circumstances, by the migration of vacant lattice sites. This appendix describes the notation used to specify lattice planes and directions and discusses the mechanisms of slip and twinning as well as the effect of stacking faults.

This appendix provides a detailed overview of the crystal structure of metals. It describes primary bonding mechanisms, space lattices and crystal systems, unit cell parameters, slip systems, and crystallographic planes and directions as well as plastic deformation mechanisms, crystalline imperfections, and the formation of surface or planar defects. It also discusses the use of X-ray diffraction for determining crystal structure.

Structurally differentiated intermetallic phases are important constituents in the microstructure of aluminum alloys, with the potential to influence properties, behaviors, and processing characteristics. These phases can form in aluminum-silicon alloys with transition metals (Fe, Mn, Ni, Cr, V, Ti) and with metals such as Mg and Cu. This chapter is a compilation of phase diagrams, microstructure images, and tables, providing information on more than 30 binary, ternary, and quaternary alloy systems associated with intermetallic phases in aluminum-silicon castings. Each section includes tabular information and data on the intermetallic phases in the aluminum corner of the equilibrium phase diagram, the characteristics of the crystal lattice of intermetallic phases, the chemical composition of the alloy intermetallic phases, and equilibrium reactions in the alloy system.

The building block of all matter, including metals, is the atom. This chapter initially provides information on atomic bonding and the crystal structure of metals and alloys, followed by a description of three crystal lattice structures of metals: face-centered cubic, hexagonal close-packed, and body-centered cubic. It then describes the four main divisions of crystal defects, namely point defects, line defects, planar defects, and volume defects. The chapter provides information on grain boundaries of metals, processes involved in atomic diffusion, and key properties of a solid solution. It also explains the aspects of a phase diagram that shows what phase or phases are present in the alloy under conditions of thermal equilibrium. Finally, a discussion on the applications of equilibrium phase diagrams is presented.

This chapter discusses the basic principles of alloying and their practical application in the production of titanium mill products and engineered parts. It begins with a review of the atomic and crystal structure of titanium and the conditions for interstitial and substitutional alloying. It then describes the different classes of alloying elements, their effect on mechanical properties and behaviors, and their influence on phase transitions and transformations. The chapter also discusses the role of intermetallic compounds and their effect on crystal structure and creep behavior.

This chapter is a compilation of beryllium phase diagrams, representing more than 25 binary alloy systems from beryllium-aluminum to beryllium-zirconium. Each diagram is presented along with a summary and source reference.

This chapter introduces many of the key concepts on which metallurgy is based. It begins with an overview of the atomic nature of matter and the forces that link atoms together in crystal lattice structures. It discusses the types of imperfections (or defects) that occur in the crystal structure of metals and their role in mechanical deformation, annealing, precipitation, and diffusion. It describes the concept of solid solutions and the effect of temperature on solubility and phase transformations. The chapter also discusses the formation of solidification structures, the use of equilibrium phase diagrams, the role of enthalpy and Gibb’s free energy in chemical reactions, and a method for determining phase compositions along the solidus and liquidus lines.

This chapter provides a general overview of titanium and its versatility as an engineering material.

This chapter describes the structures, phases, and phase transformations observed in metals and alloys as they solidify and cool to lower temperatures. It begins with a review of the solidification process, covering nucleation, grain growth, and the factors that influence grain morphology. It then discusses the concept of solid solutions, the difference between substitutional and interstitial solid solubility, the effect of alloying elements, and the development of intermetallic phases. The chapter also covers the construction and use of binary and ternary phase diagrams and describes the helpful information they contain.

This chapter focuses on the inspection of steel bars for the detection and evaluation of flaws. The principles involved also apply, for the most part, to the inspection of steel wire. The nondestructive inspection methods discussed include magnetic particle inspection, liquid penetrant inspection, ultrasonic inspection, and electromagnetic inspection. Eddy current and magnetic permeability are also covered.

Titanium, like other metals, can be shaped, formed, and strengthened through deformation processes. This chapter describes the structural changes that occur in titanium during deformation and how they can be controlled. It discusses the role of slip, dislocations, and twinning, the effect of grain size and crystal orientation, the concept of texture strengthening, and the principles of strain hardening and superplasticity. It also discusses the effect of annealing and the difference between recrystallization and neocrystallization processes.

Alloying, heat treating, and work hardening are widely used to control material properties, and though they take different approaches, they all focus on imperfections of one type or other. This chapter provides readers with essential background on these material imperfections and their relevance in design and manufacturing. It begins with a review of compositional impurities, the physical arrangement of atoms in solid solution, and the factors that determine maximum solubility. It then describes different types of structural imperfections, including point, line, and planar defects, and how they respond to applied stresses and strains. The chapter makes extensive use of graphics to illustrate crystal lattice structures and related concepts such as vacancies and interstitial sites, ion migration, volume expansion, antisite defects, edge and screw dislocations, slip planes, twinning planes, and dislocation passage through precipitates. It also points out important structure-property correlations.

This chapter describes the various phases that form in tool steels, starting from the base of the Fe-C system to the effects of the major alloying elements. The emphasis is on the phases themselves: their chemical compositions, crystal structures, and properties. The chapter also provides general considerations of phases and phase diagrams and the determination of equilibrium phase diagrams. It describes the formation of martensite, characteristics of alloy carbides, and the design of tool steels.

Beryllium is an important additive in the production of amorphous metal alloys, achieving low density and high strength. It also plays a role in amorphous alloys that can be slowly cooled and still retain their amorphous structure. This chapter provides information on the development of amorphous alloys that contain beryllium and the applications for which they are suited.

This chapter provides an overview of the physical metallurgy of beryllium, discussing phases and phase transformations, physical and mechanical properties, heat treatment, and alloying. It explains how the atomic structure of beryllium, particularly its sp hybrid state, contributes to the anisotropy of elastic constants and slip properties, resulting in a specific stiffness, or modulus-to-density ratio, six times higher than that of any other structural material.

In a perfect crystalline structure, there is an orderly repetition of the lattice in every direction in space. Real crystals contain a considerable number of imperfections, or defects, that affect their physical, chemical, mechanical, and electronic properties. Defects play an important role in processes such as deformation, annealing, precipitation, diffusion, and sintering. All defects and imperfections can be conveniently classified under four main divisions: point defects, line defects, planar defects, and volume defects. This chapter provides a detailed discussion on the causes, nature, and impact of these defects in metals. It also describes the mechanisms that cause plastic deformation in metals.