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hardness
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310079
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... discussed. In addition, the article provides information on the hardenability limits of H-steels after a note on hardenability correlation curves and Jominy equivalence charts. hardenability hardenability curves hardness Jominy end-quench test Jominy equivalence chart steel...
Abstract
The hardenability of steel is governed almost entirely by the chemical composition (carbon and alloy content) at the austenitizing temperature and the austenite grain size at the moment of quenching. This article introduces the methods to evaluate hardenability and the factors that influence steel hardenability and selection. The discussion covers processes involved in Jominy end-quench test for evaluating hardenability. The effect of carbon on hardenability data and the effect of alloys on hardenability during quenching and on the tempering response (after hardening) are also discussed. In addition, the article provides information on the hardenability limits of H-steels after a note on hardenability correlation curves and Jominy equivalence charts.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310203
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
.... Tempering of as-quenched martensite The tempering process involves heating steel to any temperature below the Ac 1 temperature. The objective of tempering is to reduce hardness to a desired level and then stop the carbide decomposition by cooling. Direct hardening of steel involves the two-step...
Abstract
Heat treatment of steel involves a number of processes to condition the microstructure and obtain desired properties. This includes various methods namely, annealing, normalizing, and hardening by quenching and tempering. This chapter focuses on general heat treatment procedures and the applications of particular types or grades of carbon and low-alloy steels. The discussion covers carbon steel classification for heat treating, tempering of quenched carbon steels, and austempering of steel. In addition, the chapter discusses the effects of alloying and hardenability on steel and provides information on martempering of steel.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310163
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... transformation with continuous cooling. With different cooling rates ( Fig. 1b ), the “critical cooling rate” is the minimum rate needed to produce 100% martensite. Cooling at rates faster than the critical cooling rate will not result in any increase in hardness and may cause cracking. Fig. 1...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the processes involved in the heat treatment of steel, namely austenitizing, hardening, quenching, and tempering. It begins with an overview of austenitizing of steels by induction heating, followed by a discussion on the processes involved in transformation of the soft austenite into martensite or lower bainite in the hardening operation. The chapter provides information on various quenching systems and a description of quenching techniques, namely austempering, martempering, and patenting. Difficulties associated with hardening of steel are discussed. Further, the chapter describes the equipment used for and principal variables of tempering. It discusses the causes for various forms of embrittlement due to tempering. Information on multiple tempering, protective-atmosphere tempering, and selective tempering are also provided, along with processes involved in selection of tempering temperature. The chapter ends with a section discussing various effects, advantages, and disadvantages of precipitation hardening.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310285
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... appreciable hardness and ability to cut. Tools such as twist drills and countersinks, milling cutters, turning tools, boring tools, broaches, and saw blades are just a few examples of such applications. The tool steels used for cutting tool applications are usually heat treated to very high hardness...
Abstract
The possible classification for tool steels is their division into four groups according to their final application: hot-worked, cold-worked, plastic mold, and high-speed tool steels. This chapter mainly follows such division by application, but the grade nomenclatures used here are primarily from AISI. It presents the classification of tool steels and discusses the principles and processes of tool steel heat treating, namely normalizing, annealing, hardening, and tempering. Various factors associated with distortion in several tool steels are also covered. The chapter discusses the composition, classification, and properties of unalloyed and low-alloy cold-worked tool steels; medium and high-alloy cold-worked tool steels; and 18% nickel maraging steels.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.9781627083263
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310331
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... hardness and strength Through hardening: heating, quenching, and tempering to provide the highest possible hardness and strength Surface hardening: flame, induction, or laser heating the surface of a casting to increase its wear resistance Most iron-casting producers would like to produce...
Abstract
Cast irons, like steels, are iron-carbon alloys but with higher carbon levels than steels to take advantage of eutectic solidification in the binary iron-carbon system. Like steel, heat treatment of cast iron includes stress relieving, annealing, normalizing, through hardening, and surface hardening. This chapter introduces solid-state heat treatment of iron castings, covering general considerations for heat treatment and discussing the processes, advantages, and disadvantages of heat treatment of cast iron.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310233
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
...-temperature and large-section toughness. They are called ferritic alloys because they remain ferritic at all temperatures and thus cannot be hardened by heating and quenching. They are heat treated for annealing, to reduce excess hardness from cold working. In some cases they can also be heat treated for...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the composition and classification of stainless steels and focuses on the processes involved in heat treatment and applications of these steels. The wrought and the cast stainless steels covered are ferritic, austenitic, duplex (ferritic-austenitic), martensitic, and precipitation-hardening. In addition, information on special considerations for stainless steel castings is also provided. The heat treatment processes explained in the chapter are preheating, annealing, stress relieving, hardening, tempering, austenite conditioning, heat aging, and nitride surface hardening. Finally, some special considerations for stainless steel castings are discussed.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310095
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... most frequently used steel. Carbon is the main factor affecting the hardness and mechanical properties of steel, and carbon content increases the hardness (strength) for all types of microstructures, with martensitic microstructures having the greatest hardness. ( Fig. 1 ). Hardness increases...
Abstract
This chapter describes the designations of carbon and low-alloy steels and their general characteristics in terms of their response to hardening and mechanical properties. The steels covered are low-carbon steels, higher manganese carbon steels, boron-treated carbon steels, H-steels, free-machining carbon steels, low-alloy manganese steels, low-alloy molybdenum steels, low-alloy chromium-molybdenum steels, low-alloy nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels, low-alloy nickel-molybdenum steels, low-alloy chromium steels, and low-alloy silicon-manganese steels. The chapter provides information on residual elements, microalloying, grain refinement, mechanical properties, and grain size of these steels. In addition, the effects of free-machining additives are also discussed.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... move about in solid metals and alloys may be a hard sell, but it is absolutely true. Atoms in a solid are constantly vibrating due to their thermal motion. Although it may be difficult to imagine, diffusion allows them to migrate to different locations within a crystal lattice. The vibrating atom may...
Abstract
The building block of all matter, including metals, is the atom. This chapter initially provides information on atomic bonding and the crystal structure of metals and alloys, followed by a description of three crystal lattice structures of metals: face-centered cubic, hexagonal close-packed, and body-centered cubic. It then describes the four main divisions of crystal defects, namely point defects, line defects, planar defects, and volume defects. The chapter provides information on grain boundaries of metals, processes involved in atomic diffusion, and key properties of a solid solution. It also explains the aspects of a phase diagram that shows what phase or phases are present in the alloy under conditions of thermal equilibrium. Finally, a discussion on the applications of equilibrium phase diagrams is presented.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310029
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... and distribution, contributes in a variety of ways to the strengthening, deformation, and fracture of steels. Cementite is very hard, ranging in hardness from 800 to 1400 HV, depending on the substitution of elements for iron. Heat treatment also can alter the amount, shape, and distribution of...
Abstract
The existence of austenite and ferrite, along with carbon alloying, is fundamental in the heat treatment of steel. In view of the importance of structure and its formation to heat treatment, this chapter describes the various microstructures that form in steels, the various factors that determine the formation of microstructures during heat treatment processing of steel, and some of the characteristic properties of each of the microstructures. The discussion also covers the constitution of iron during heat treatment and the phases of heat-treated steel with elaborated information on iron phase transformation, hysteresis in heating and cooling, ferrite and austenite as two crystal structures of solid iron, and the diffusion coefficient of carbon.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310055
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... (0.04 in.) with air cooling. Hardenability is thus apparent in CCT diagrams and related to the cooling rates on Jominy end-quench test specimens ( Fig. 8 ). Positions along the Jominy bar are equivalent to cooling rates and can be expressed as equivalent bar diameters (see Chapter 4, “Hardness and...
Abstract
The decomposition of austenite, during controlled cooling or quenching, produces a wide variety of microstructures in response to such factors as steel composition, temperature of transformation, and cooling rate. This chapter provides a detailed discussion on the isothermal transformation and continuous cooling transformation diagrams that characterize the conditions that produce the various microstructures. It discusses the mechanism and process variables of quenching of steel, explaining the factors involved in the mechanism of quenching. In addition, the chapter provides information on the causes and characteristics of residual stresses, distortion, and quench cracking of steel.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310127
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... temperature below the lower heating critical temperature ( Ac 1 ) and held at temperature long enough (usually relatively short) to produce the desired effect and then cooled by any suitable and convenient means. Table 2 illustrates the effect of time and temperature on hardness of a medium-carbon low...
Abstract
This chapter describes the general characteristics of major types of steel annealing, including the process of normalization, which is a process that refines or normalizes the microstructure of steel. The first part of the chapter begins with an overview of the three-stage process of recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. This is followed by discussions on annealing processes, namely subcritical annealing, critical-range annealing, full annealing, isothermal annealing, annealing for microstructure, and solution or quench annealing. Next, the chapter describes two undesirable reactions that occur during annealing: decarburization and scaling. Information on the gases and gas mixtures used for controlled atmospheres is then provided. The second part of the chapter focuses on the processes involved in normalizing, along with information on furnace equipment for normalizing. In addition, the chapter includes information on processes involved in induction heating of steel.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310351
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... primarily used for the purpose of increasing hardness, yield strength, and/or tensile strength. Eutectoid transformations, which form the basis of a number of steel heat treatment practices, are much less common in the heat treatment of nonferrous alloys. Eutectoid transformations do occur in various...
Abstract
The term heat treatable alloys is used in reference to alloys that can be hardened by heat treatment, and this chapter briefly describes the major types of heat treatable nonferrous alloys. The discussion provides a general description of annealing cold-worked metals and describes some of the common nonferrous alloys that can be hardened through heat treatment. The nonferrous alloys covered include aluminum alloys, cobalt alloys, copper alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel alloys, and titanium alloys.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 April 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.bpapp.9781627083195
EISBN: 978-1-62708-319-5
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 September 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.fahtsc.t51130529
EISBN: 978-1-62708-284-6
... Abstract This appendix is a collection of tables listing examples of published hardness conversion equations, approximate Rockwell B and C hardness conversion numbers for nonaustenitic steels, and equivalent hardness numbers for Brinell hardness numbers and Vickers (diamond pyramid) hardness...
Abstract
This appendix is a collection of tables listing examples of published hardness conversion equations, approximate Rockwell B and C hardness conversion numbers for nonaustenitic steels, and equivalent hardness numbers for Brinell hardness numbers and Vickers (diamond pyramid) hardness numbers for steel.
Book
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 July 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.bcp.9781627082983
EISBN: 978-1-62708-298-3
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ssde.t52310279
EISBN: 978-1-62708-286-0
... mechanical properties listed include yield strength, tensile strength, elongation and hardness. stainless steel density modulus of elasticity coefficient of thermal expansion thermal conductivity specific heat electrical resistivity yield strength tensile strength elongation hardness...
Abstract
This appendix contains tables listing the physical and mechanical properties of stainless steel engineering alloys. The physical properties covered are density, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, specific heat, and electrical resistivity. The mechanical properties listed include yield strength, tensile strength, elongation and hardness.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2007
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.smnm.t52140083
EISBN: 978-1-62708-264-8
... Abstract This chapter addresses the concept of hardenability by first describing the basic hardening process for steel, starting with austenitization followed by quenching and tempering. The context also serves to clarify the difference between hardenability and hardness, which are often...
Abstract
This chapter addresses the concept of hardenability by first describing the basic hardening process for steel, starting with austenitization followed by quenching and tempering. The context also serves to clarify the difference between hardenability and hardness, which are often confused. Most of the information in the chapter is of a practical nature, covering application-oriented topics such as isothermal transformation (IT) and continuous transformation (CT) diagrams which are used to predict and control the rate of formation of ferrite, pearlite, and bainite. The chapter also discusses the effect of grain size and alloying elements and explains how Jominy end quench testing is used to evaluate the hardenability of steel.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pht2.t51440027
EISBN: 978-1-62708-262-4
... Abstract This chapter discusses the general principles of measuring hardness and hardenability of steel. The discussion begins by defining hardness and exploring the history of hardness testing. This is followed by a discussion on the principles, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the general principles of measuring hardness and hardenability of steel. The discussion begins by defining hardness and exploring the history of hardness testing. This is followed by a discussion on the principles, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of commonly used hardness testing systems: the Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, Scleroscope, and various microhardness testers that employ Vickers or Knoop indenters. The effect of carbon content on annealed steels and hardened steels is then discussed. A brief discussion on the concept of the ideal critical diameter and austenitic grain size of steels is also provided to understand how one can calculate and quantify hardenability. The processes involved in various methods for evaluating hardenability are reviewed, discussing the effect of alloying elements on hardenability.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aub.t61170091
EISBN: 978-1-62708-297-6
..., giving it distinct advantages in a number of applications. The article also discusses the role of melt treatment elements and explains how alloying and heat treatment affect tensile strength, hardness, toughness, and ductility. compacted graphite iron Composition Compacted graphite...
Abstract
This article discusses the composition and morphology of compacted graphite (CG) iron relative to that of gray and ductile iron. It explains that the graphite in CG iron is intermediate in shape between the spheroidal graphite found in ductile iron and the flake graphite in gray iron, giving it distinct advantages in a number of applications. The article also discusses the role of melt treatment elements and explains how alloying and heat treatment affect tensile strength, hardness, toughness, and ductility.