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hardenability
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310079
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... … 0.35–0.40 1.2–1.3 … Good 61 200 0.05 0.40–0.60 1.4–2.0 … Strong 230 750 … 0.60–0.80 1.6–2.0 4.0 Fig. 4 Plot of end-quench test results for five different steels Fig. 3 Jominy end-quench hardenability test. (a) Standard end-quench test specimen, (b) specimen...
Abstract
The hardenability of steel is governed almost entirely by the chemical composition (carbon and alloy content) at the austenitizing temperature and the austenite grain size at the moment of quenching. This article introduces the methods to evaluate hardenability and the factors that influence steel hardenability and selection. The discussion covers processes involved in Jominy end-quench test for evaluating hardenability. The effect of carbon on hardenability data and the effect of alloys on hardenability during quenching and on the tempering response (after hardening) are also discussed. In addition, the article provides information on the hardenability limits of H-steels after a note on hardenability correlation curves and Jominy equivalence charts.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.piht2.t55050347
EISBN: 978-1-62708-311-9
...). Austenitize, 845 °C (1550 °F). Source: Ref 1 Fig. A6.8 Heat-treating temperatures recommended by SAE. Normalize (for forged or rolled specimens only), 925 °C (1700 °F). Austenitize, 925 °C (1700 °F). Source: Ref 1 Fig. A6.9 E52100 end-quench hardenability, austenitized at 845 °C (1550...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410335
EISBN: 978-1-62708-265-5
...Abstract Abstract The properties of martensite and the mechanisms that govern its formation are the key to understanding hardness and the hardenability of carbon steel. Martensite is a transformation product of austenite that requires rapid cooling to suppress diffusion-dependent transformation...
Abstract
The properties of martensite and the mechanisms that govern its formation are the key to understanding hardness and the hardenability of carbon steel. Martensite is a transformation product of austenite that requires rapid cooling to suppress diffusion-dependent transformation pathways. This chapter describes the conditions that must be met for martensite to form. It discusses the role of quenching and the factors that affect cooling rate, including heat transfer, thermal diffusivity, emissivity, and section size. It defines hardenability and explains how to quantify it using the Grossmann-Bain approach or Jominy end-quench testing. It also explains how hardenability can be improved through the addition of boron, phosphorus, and other alloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2007
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.smnm.t52140083
EISBN: 978-1-62708-264-8
...Abstract Abstract This chapter addresses the concept of hardenability by first describing the basic hardening process for steel, starting with austenitization followed by quenching and tempering. The context also serves to clarify the difference between hardenability and hardness, which...
Abstract
This chapter addresses the concept of hardenability by first describing the basic hardening process for steel, starting with austenitization followed by quenching and tempering. The context also serves to clarify the difference between hardenability and hardness, which are often confused. Most of the information in the chapter is of a practical nature, covering application-oriented topics such as isothermal transformation (IT) and continuous transformation (CT) diagrams which are used to predict and control the rate of formation of ferrite, pearlite, and bainite. The chapter also discusses the effect of grain size and alloying elements and explains how Jominy end quench testing is used to evaluate the hardenability of steel.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pht2.t51440027
EISBN: 978-1-62708-262-4
...Hardenabilities (stated as a range of <italic>D</italic><sub>I</sub> values) for various steels Table 4 Hardenabilities (stated as a range of D I values) for various steels Steel D I 1045 0.9–1.3 1090 1.2–1.6 1320H 1.4–2.5 1330H 1.9–2.7 1335H 2.0–2.8 1340H...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the general principles of measuring hardness and hardenability of steel. The discussion begins by defining hardness and exploring the history of hardness testing. This is followed by a discussion on the principles, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of commonly used hardness testing systems: the Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, Scleroscope, and various microhardness testers that employ Vickers or Knoop indenters. The effect of carbon content on annealed steels and hardened steels is then discussed. A brief discussion on the concept of the ideal critical diameter and austenitic grain size of steels is also provided to understand how one can calculate and quantify hardenability. The processes involved in various methods for evaluating hardenability are reviewed, discussing the effect of alloying elements on hardenability.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtpclas.t64560043
EISBN: 978-1-62708-353-9
... 0.44 58 0.57 62 0.19 44 0.32 51 0.45 58 0.58 62 0.20 44 0.33 52 0.46 59 0.59 62 0.21 45 0.34 53 0.47 59 0.60 62 0.22 45 0.35 53 0.48 59 (After L.C. Boyd and J. Field, as given in C.A. Siebert, D.V. Doane and D.H. Breen, The Hardenability of steels...
Abstract
The crux of this chapter is to develop a method to quantitatively define hardenability. The chapter includes the empirical methods to estimate the hardenability knowing the chemical composition, describes prior austenite grain size, and examines their utility. It then reviews the Jominy end-quench test and explains its relation to hardenability. The chapter outlines the concepts of the critical diameter and the ideal critical diameter, leading to establishing a quantitative measure of hardenability. Next, it examines methods that have been developed which allow estimation of the ideal critical diameter from the chemical composition and the austenite grain size. The chapter reviews the methods which allow calculation of the Jominy curve from a value of the ideal critical diameter. Additionally, it describes the selection and application of H-band steels. Finally, the chapter describes the effect of boron on the hardenability of steels.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtpclas.t64560389
EISBN: 978-1-62708-353-9
...Abstract Abstract This chapter discusses the method for calculating hardenability from composition. It contains tables listing multiplying factors, carbon content, initial hardness, and 50% martensite hardness. The tables also list Jominy distance for 50% martensite vs. DI (in. and mm), boron...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the method for calculating hardenability from composition. It contains tables listing multiplying factors, carbon content, initial hardness, and 50% martensite hardness. The tables also list Jominy distance for 50% martensite vs. DI (in. and mm), boron factors vs. % carbon and alloy factor, and distance hardness dividing factors for non-boron and boron steels (in. and mm).
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.sch6.t68200327
EISBN: 978-1-62708-354-6
...Abstract Abstract This chapter describes the processes involved in heat treatment of carbon and low alloy steel, high strength low alloy steels, austenitic manganese steels, martensitic stainless steels, and austenitic stainless steels. In addition, precipitation hardening and quench hardening...
Abstract
This chapter describes the processes involved in heat treatment of carbon and low alloy steel, high strength low alloy steels, austenitic manganese steels, martensitic stainless steels, and austenitic stainless steels. In addition, precipitation hardening and quench hardening of carbon steel is also covered.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtpclas.t64560441
EISBN: 978-1-62708-353-9
...Abstract Abstract This appendix lists the readings of specified hardness limits for H-steels, along with graphs showing the distance from the quenched surface against hardness values. This appendix is a series of tables and graphs giving hardenability bands for H-steels. Reprinted from...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240135
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
...Abstract Abstract Precipitation hardening is used extensively to strengthen aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel-base superalloys, beryllium-copper alloys, and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. This chapter discusses two types of particle strengthening: precipitation hardening...
Abstract
Precipitation hardening is used extensively to strengthen aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel-base superalloys, beryllium-copper alloys, and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. This chapter discusses two types of particle strengthening: precipitation hardening, which takes place during heat treatment; and true dispersion hardening, which can be achieved by mechanical alloying and powder metallurgy consolidation. It provides information on the three steps of precipitation hardening of aluminum alloys: solution heat treating, rapid quenching, and aging.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.piht2.t55050313
EISBN: 978-1-62708-311-9
...Typical operating conditions for progressive through hardening of steel parts by induction Table A2.1 Typical operating conditions for progressive through hardening of steel parts by induction Section size Material Frequency (a) , Hz Power (b) , kW Total heating time, s Scan time...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410499
EISBN: 978-1-62708-265-5
... Mechanical components often require surface treatments to meet application demands. This chapter describes several surface hardening treatments for steel and their effect on microstructure, composition, and properties. It discusses flame hardening, induction heating, carburizing, nitriding...
Abstract
Mechanical components often require surface treatments to meet application demands. This chapter describes several surface hardening treatments for steel and their effect on microstructure, composition, and properties. It discusses flame hardening, induction heating, carburizing, nitriding, carbonitriding, and nitrocarburizing. The discussion on carburizing addresses several interrelated factors, including processing principles, alloying, surface oxidation, residual stresses, bending fatigue, contact fatigue, and fracture.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 September 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.fahtsc.t51130417
EISBN: 978-1-62708-284-6
...Suitable steels for induction surface hardening Table 1 Suitable steels for induction surface hardening Type of steel Chemical composition % C Si Mn P, max S, max Cr Mo Ni 1 0.33–0.39 0.15–0.40 0.50–0.80 0.035 0.035 … … … 2 0.38–0.44 0.15–0.40 0.50–0.80...
Abstract
Induction heating, in most applications, is used to selectively heat only a portion of the workpiece that requires treatment. This chapter covers the basic principles, features, and metallurgical aspects of induction heating. The discussion includes the conditions required for induction heating and quenching, the use of magnetic flux concentrators to improve the efficiency of surface heating, and the quenching systems used for induction hardening. The discussion also provides information on time-temperature dependence in induction heating, workpiece distortion in induction surface hardening, residual stresses after induction surface hardening and finish grinding, and input and output control of steel for induction surface hardening of gears.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 September 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.gmpm.t51250155
EISBN: 978-1-62708-345-4
...Abstract Abstract The through-hardening process is generally used for gears that do not require high surface hardness. Four different methods of heat treatment are primarily used for through-hardened gears. In ascending order of achievable hardness, these methods are annealing, normalizing...
Abstract
The through-hardening process is generally used for gears that do not require high surface hardness. Four different methods of heat treatment are primarily used for through-hardened gears. In ascending order of achievable hardness, these methods are annealing, normalizing and annealing, normalizing and tempering, and quenching and tempering. This chapter discusses the processes involved in the through-hardening of gears. It provides information on designing procedures, hardness, distortion, and applications of the through-hardened gears. The chapter presents a case history on the design and manufacture of a through-hardened gear rack.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240395
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
...Abstract Abstract This chapter discusses the process characteristics, advantages, disadvantages, and applications of various processes involved in surface hardening of steel. These include pack carburizing, liquid carburizing, gas carburizing, vacuum carburizing, plasma carburizing, gas...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the process characteristics, advantages, disadvantages, and applications of various processes involved in surface hardening of steel. These include pack carburizing, liquid carburizing, gas carburizing, vacuum carburizing, plasma carburizing, gas nitriding, liquid nitriding, carbonitriding, and hardfacing. The chapter describes two surface hardening processes by localized heat treatment: flame hardening and induction hardening. It also briefly summarizes other surface hardening processes, namely, aluminizing, siliconizing, chromizing, titanium carbide coatings, and boronizing.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pht2.t51440141
EISBN: 978-1-62708-262-4
...Typical characteristics of case hardening treatments Table 1 Typical characteristics of case hardening treatments Process Nature of case Process temperature, °C (°F) Typical case depth Case hardness, HRC Carburizing Pack Diffused carbon 815–1090 (1500–2000) 125 μm–1.5 mm...
Abstract
This chapter discusses hardening processes that involve changes in surface composition. These case hardening treatments are broadly classified into four groups: carburizing, carbonitriding, nitriding, and nitrocarburizing. Key parameters and operating considerations for each treatment are discussed.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pht2.t51440159
EISBN: 978-1-62708-262-4
...Minimum hardness depths for production work in surface hardening Table 2 Minimum hardness depths for production work in surface hardening Frequency, Hz Hardness depth (a) , in. Penetration of electrical energy (b) , in. 3,000 0.060 0.035 10,000 0.040 0.020 450,000 0.020...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the processes involved in heat treating of stainless steels, providing information on the classification, chemical compositions, and corrosion resistance of stainless steels. Five groups of stainless steels are discussed: austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, precipitation-hardening, and duplex grades. The chapter also describes the heat treatment conditions that should be followed for processing of stainless steels.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310163
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
...Austenitizing temperatures for direct hardening carbon and alloy steels Table 1 Austenitizing temperatures for direct hardening carbon and alloy steels Steel, AISI, SAE UNS number Temperature °C °F Carbon steels 1025 G10250 860–900 1575–1650 1026 G10260 860–885...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the processes involved in the heat treatment of steel, namely austenitizing, hardening, quenching, and tempering. It begins with an overview of austenitizing of steels by induction heating, followed by a discussion on the processes involved in transformation of the soft austenite into martensite or lower bainite in the hardening operation. The chapter provides information on various quenching systems and a description of quenching techniques, namely austempering, martempering, and patenting. Difficulties associated with hardening of steel are discussed. Further, the chapter describes the equipment used for and principal variables of tempering. It discusses the causes for various forms of embrittlement due to tempering. Information on multiple tempering, protective-atmosphere tempering, and selective tempering are also provided, along with processes involved in selection of tempering temperature. The chapter ends with a section discussing various effects, advantages, and disadvantages of precipitation hardening.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.htgpge.t67320021
EISBN: 978-1-62708-347-8
...Abstract Abstract Through-hardening heat treatment is generally used for gears that do not require high surface hardness. In through hardening, gears are first heated to a required temperature and then cooled either in the furnace or quenched in air, gas, or liquid. Four heat treatment methods...
Abstract
Through-hardening heat treatment is generally used for gears that do not require high surface hardness. In through hardening, gears are first heated to a required temperature and then cooled either in the furnace or quenched in air, gas, or liquid. Four heat treatment methods are primarily used for through-hardened gears: annealing, normalizing and annealing, normalizing and tempering, and quenching and tempering. This chapter begins with a discussion of these through-hardening processes. This is followed by sections providing some factors affecting the design and hardness levels of through-hardened gears. Next, the chapter reviews the considerations related to distortion of through-hardened gears. It then discusses the applications of through-hardened gears. Finally, the chapter presents a case history of the design and manufacture of a through-hardened gear rack.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.htgpge.t67320033
EISBN: 978-1-62708-347-8
...Abstract Abstract The primary objective of carburizing and hardening gears is to secure a hard case and a relatively soft but tough core. For this process, low-carbon steels (up to a maximum of approximately 0.30% carbon), either with or without alloying elements (nickel, chromium, manganese...
Abstract
The primary objective of carburizing and hardening gears is to secure a hard case and a relatively soft but tough core. For this process, low-carbon steels (up to a maximum of approximately 0.30% carbon), either with or without alloying elements (nickel, chromium, manganese, molybdenum), normally are used. The processes involved in hardening, tempering, recarburizing, and cold treatment of carburized and quenched gears are discussed. Next, the chapter reviews the selection of materials for carburized gears and considerations related to carbon content, core hardness, and microstructure. This is followed by sections discussing some problems that can be experienced in the carburizing process and how these can be addressed, including a section on shot peening to induce compressive residual stress at and below the surface. It then discusses the applications of carburized gears and finally presents a case history of distortion control of carburized and hardened gears.