This chapter describes nondestructive evaluation (NDE) test methods and their relative effectiveness for diagnosing the cause of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) service failures. It discusses procedures for analyzing various types of damage in carbon and low-alloy steels, high-strength low-alloy steels, hardenable stainless steels, austenitic stainless steels, copper-base alloys, titanium and titanium alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys, and nickel and nickel alloys. It identifies material-environment combinations where SCC is known to occur, provides guidelines on how to characterize cracking and fracture damage, and explains what to look for during macroscopic and microscopic examinations as well as chemical and metallographic analyses. It also includes nearly a dozen case studies investigating SCC failures in various materials.

This chapters discusses the basic steps in the failure analysis process. It covers examination procedures, selection and preservation of fracture surfaces, macro and microfractography, metallographic analysis, mechanical testing, chemical analysis, and simulated service testing.

This chapter discusses the causes and effects of ductile and brittle fracture and their key differences. It describes the characteristics of ductile fracture, explaining how microvoids develop and coalesce into larger cavities that are rapidly pulled apart, leaving bowl-shaped voids or dimples on each side of the fracture surface. It includes SEM images showing how the cavities form, how they progress to final failure, and how dimples vary in shape based on loading conditions. The chapter, likewise, describes the characteristics of brittle fracture, explaining why it occurs and how it appears under various levels of magnification. It also discusses the ductile-to-brittle transition observed in steel, the characteristics of intergranular fracture, and the causes of embrittlement.

This chapter discusses common forms of corrosion, including uniform corrosion, galvanic corrosion, pitting, crevice corrosion, dealloying corrosion, intergranular corrosion, and exfoliation. It describes the factors that contribute to stress-corrosion cracking, hydrogen embrittlement, and corrosion fatigue and compares and contrasts their effects on mechanical properties, performance, and operating life. It also includes information on high-temperature oxidation and corrosion prevention techniques.

This chapter discusses the factors that play a role in fatigue failures and how they affect the service life of metals and structures. It describes the stresses associated with high-cycle and low-cycle fatigue and how they differ from the loading profiles typically used to generate fatigue data. It compares the Gerber, Goodman, and Soderberg methods for predicting the effect of mean stress from bending data, describes the statistical nature of fatigue measurements, and explains how plastic strain causes cyclic hardening and softening. It discusses the work of Wohler, Basquin, and others and how it led to the development of a strain-based approach to fatigue and the use of fatigue strength and ductility coefficients. It reviews the three stages of fatigue, beginning with crack initiation followed by crack growth and final fracture. It explains how fracture mechanics can be applied to crack propagation and how stress concentrations affect fatigue life. It also discusses fatigue life improvement methods and design approaches.

This chapter provides a brief review of industry’s battle with fatigue and fracture and what has been learned about the underlying failure mechanisms and their effect on product lifetime and service. It recounts some of the tragic events that led to the discovery of fatigue and brittle fracture and explains how they reshaped design philosophies, procedures, and tools. It also discusses the influence of material and manufacturing defects, operating conditions, stress concentration and intensity, temperature and pressure, and cyclic loading, all of which play a role in the onset of fatigue cracking and thus should be considered when predicting useful product life.

This chapter discusses the stress-strain response of materials, how it is measured, and how it used to set performance expectations. It begins by describing the common tensile test and how it sheds light on the elastic design of structures as well as plasticity and fracture behaviors. It explains how engineering and true stress-strain curves differ, how one is used for design and the other for analyzing metal forming operations. It discusses the effect of holes, fillets, and radii on the distribution of stresses and the use of notch tensile testing to detect metallurgical embrittlement. The chapter also covers compression, shear, and torsion testing, the prediction of yielding, residual stress, and hardness.

Fracture mechanics is the science of predicting the load-carrying capabilities of cracked structures based on a mathematical description of the stress field surrounding the crack. The fundamental ideas stem from the work of Griffith, who demonstrated that the strain energy released upon crack extension is the driving force for fracture in a cracked material under load. This chapter provides a summary of Griffith’s work and the subsequent development of linear elastic and elastic-plastic fracture mechanics. It includes detailed illustrations and examples, familiarizing readers with the steps involved in determining strain energy release rates, stress intensity factors, J-integrals, R-curves, and crack tip opening displacement parameters. It also covers fracture toughness testing methods and the effect of measurement variables.

This chapter provides information and data on the fatigue and fracture properties of steel, aluminum, and titanium alloys. It explains how microstructure, grain size, inclusions, and other factors affect the fracture toughness and fatigue life of these materials and the extent to which they can be optimized. It also discusses the effect of metalworking and heat treatment, the influence of loading and operating conditions, and factors such as corrosion damage that can accelerate crack growth rates.

This chapter discusses the fatigue behavior of bolted, riveted, and welded joints. It describes the relative strength of machined and rolled threads and the effect of thread design, preload, and clamping force on the fatigue strength of bolts made from different steels. It explains where fatigue failures are likely to occur in cold-driven rivet and friction joints, and why the fatigue strength of welded joints can be much lower than that of the parent metal, depending on weld shape, joint geometry, discontinuities, and residual stresses. The chapter also explains how to improve the fatigue life of welded joints and discusses the factors that can reduce the fracture toughness of weld metals.

Fracture control can be defined as a concerted effort to maintain operating safety without catastrophic failure by fracture. It requires an understanding of how cracks affect structural integrity and strength and the time that a crack can grow before it exceeds permissible size. The chapter describes some of methods used to determine maximum permissible crack size and predict growth rates. It explains how the information can then be used to control fractures through periodic inspection, fail-safe features, mandated retirement, and proof testing. It presents a number of fracture control plans optimized for different circumstances, examines the damage tolerance requirements used by different industries, and discusses various approaches for fatigue design.

This chapter covers the fatigue and fracture behaviors of ceramics and polymers. It discusses the benefits of transformation toughening, the use of ceramic-matrix composites, fracture mechanisms, and the relationship between fatigue and subcritical crack growth. In regard to polymers, it covers general characteristics, viscoelastic properties, and static strength. It also discusses fatigue life, impact strength, fracture toughness, and stress-rupture behaviors as well as environmental effects such as plasticization, solvation, swelling, stress cracking, degradation, and surface embrittlement.

Unlike metals, in which fatigue failures are due to a single crack that grows to a critical length, the effects of fatigue in composites are much more distributed and varied. As the chapter explains, there are five major damage mechanisms that contribute to the progression of composite fatigue, those being matrix cracking, fiber breaking, crack coupling, delamination initiation, and delamination growth. The chapter describes each mechanism in detail along with related factors. It also discusses the primary differences between composites and metals, the effect of manufacturing defects, damage tolerance, and testing and certification.

This chapter compares and contrasts the high-temperature behaviors of metals and composites. It describes the use of creep curves and stress-rupture testing along with the underlying mechanisms in creep deformation and elevated-temperature fracture. It also discusses creep-life prediction and related design methods and some of the factors involved in high-temperature fatigue, including creep-fatigue interaction and thermomechanical damage.

This chapter discusses the causes and effects of wear along with prevention methods. It covers abrasive, erosive, erosion-corrosion, grinding, gouging, adhesive, and fretting wear. It also discusses various forms of contact-stress fatigue, including subsurface-origin fatigue, surface-origin fatigue, subcase-origin fatigue (spalling fatigue), and cavitation fatigue.

This appendix provides detailed information on design deficiencies, material and manufacturing defects, and service-life anomalies. It covers ingot-related defects, forging and sheet forming imperfections, casting defects, heat treating defects, and weld discontinuities. It shows how application life is affected by the severity of service conditions and discusses the consequences of using inappropriate materials.

This atlas contains images showing how sintering conditions (time, temperature, and atmosphere) and compaction pressure affect the microstructure of different types of stainless steel. It also includes images of stainless steel powders, fracture surfaces, and test specimens characterized by the presence of compounds, such as oxides, carbides, and nitrides, and various forms of corrosion.

This chapter provides an overview of the tools and techniques used to examine failure specimens and the wealth of information that can be obtained from fracture surfaces, cracks, wear patterns, and other such features. It discusses the use of metallography, fractography, and optical and electron microscopy. It presents a number of images recorded using these methods and explains what they reveal about the mode of fracture and the state of the component prior to failure.

This chapter discusses some of the more advanced methods and procedures used in failure analysis, including in-service material sampling, in situ microstructure analysis, and a form of punch testing that can determine the fracture toughness of any material from a tiny specimen. The chapter also covers quantitative fractography, fracture surface topography analysis, and the use of oxide dating as well as fault tree and failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) and computational techniques.