This chapter examines some of the behaviors that suit materials for electrical and electronic applications. It begins by explaining how charge carriers move in metals and semiconductors and how properties such as conductivity, mobility, and resistivity are derived. It discusses the significance of energy bands, intrinsic and extrinsic conduction, and the properties of compound semiconductors. It also covers semiconductor devices, including p-n junctions, light emitting diodes, transistors, and piezoelectric crystals.

This chapter is a detailed account of major sources of stray current that can cause corrosion and discusses several ways to prevent damage from stray-current corrosion.

Liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, and eddy current inspection are used to detect surface flaws. This chapter is a detailed account of the physical principles, process description, equipment requirements, selection criteria, advantages, limitations, and applications of these surface flaw detection techniques.

This chapter discusses the processes involved in heat treating of stainless steels, providing information on the classification, chemical compositions, and corrosion resistance of stainless steels. Five groups of stainless steels are discussed: austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, precipitation-hardening, and duplex grades. The chapter also describes the heat treatment conditions that should be followed for processing of stainless steels.

Besides the induction coil and workpiece, the induction generator (source of ac power) is probably the most important component of an overall induction heating system. Such equipment is typically rated in terms of its frequency and maximum output power (in kilowatts). This chapter addresses the selection of power supplies in terms of these two factors as well as the operational features of different types of sources. The six different types of power supplies for induction heating applications covered in this chapter are line-frequency supplies, frequency multipliers, motor-generators, solid-state (static) inverters, spark-gap converters, and radio-frequency power supplies. The chapter discusses the design and characteristics of each of the various types of power supplies.

This chapter discusses the most common causes and contributing factors for external corrosion and stress-corrosion cracking on oil and natural gas pipelines, as well as describes procedures for prevention, mitigation, detection, assessment, and repair. The forms of external corrosion covered include differential cell corrosion, microbiologically influenced corrosion, and stray current corrosion.

This chapter provides a detailed account of cathodic protection. It begins by discussing the fundamentals of cathodic protection followed by a description of the various types of cathodic protection. It then describes the origins, types, and alleged failures of cathodic protection criteria. This is followed by a section providing information on anode materials that are used for cathodic protection applications. General guidelines for designing the cathodic protection systems are also listed. Finally, the chapter presents various examples on cathodic protection of steel structures. The examples are selected to familiarize the design engineer with the steps to follow in selecting a specific corrosion-control method.

This article describes in detail the process of corrosion control by cathodic and anodic protection. The discussion covers the basic concept of cathodic and anodic protection systems, their types and equipment used, and the advantages, limitations, and applications of these protection systems. The types of cathodic protection systems include sacrificial cathodic protection and impressed-current cathodic protection systems. Some of the technical problems associated with cathodic protection include the effects of stray currents on the corrosion of adjacent metal structures, the effects of the chemical reactions occurring at the surface of the protected structure, and the effects of cathodic protection on coatings.

This chapter discusses three measurements parameters: temperature, strain, and magnetic field strength. It stresses the measurement of temperature because it is the primary variable in nearly all low-temperature material properties. The chapter contains information on methods and auxiliary materials. Areas of frequent concern, such as thermal contact, heat leak, thermal anchoring, thermal conductivity of greases, insulators, lead wires, ground loops, and feedthroughs are also reviewed. The chapter provides an overview and historical development of temperature scales because the practical use of all thermometers is associated with some approximation of the thermodynamic temperature scale. A short section is devoted to types of temperature measuring devices. The characteristics of commercially available resistance-type strain gauges at low temperatures are stressed.

Arc welding applies to a large and diversified group of welding processes that use an electric arc as the source of heat to melt and join metals. This chapter provides a detailed overview of specific arc welding methods: shielded metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, submerged arc welding, gas metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, plasma arc welding, plasma-GMAW welding, electroslag welding, and electrogas welding. The basic characteristics of gases used for shielding during arc welding are briefly discussed.

This chapter discusses the selection, use, and integration of methods to control process variables in induction heating, including control of workpiece and processing temperature and materials handling systems. The discussion of temperature control includes a review of proportional controllers and heat-regulating devices. Integration of control functions is illustrated with examples related to heating of steel slabs, surface hardening of steel parts, vacuum induction melting for casting operations, and process optimization for electric-demand control. Distributed control within larger manufacturing systems is discussed. The chapter also covers nondestructive techniques for process control and methods for process simulation.

Photon emission (PE) is one of the major optical techniques for contactless isolation of functional faults in integrated circuits (ICs) in full electrical operation. This article describes the fundamental mechanisms of PE in silicon based ICs. It presents the opportunities of contactless characterization for the most important electronic device, the MOS - Field Effect Transistor, the heart of ICs and their basic digital element, the CMOS inverter. The article discusses the specification and selection of detectors for proper PE applications. The main topics are image resolution, sensitivity, and spectral range of the detectors. The article also discusses the value and application of spectral information in the PE signal. It describes state of the art IC technologies. Finally, the article discusses the applications of PE in ICs and also I/O devices, integrated bipolar transistors in BiCMOS technologies, and parasitic bipolar effects like latch up.

Anodic protection is used on a smaller scale than other corrosion control techniques due to the fundamental electrochemistry involved. This chapter provides a brief history of the technique, discusses anodic protection use, and compares anodic and cathodic protection. The background and theory of anodic protection are summarized. In addition to briefly describing the various items used for each component of an anodic protection system, the chapter presents design concerns as well as applications of the system. Factors concerning the economic justification of anodic protection are also described.

Welded joints in any component or structure require a thorough inspection. The role of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) in the inspection of welds is very important, and the technology has become highly developed as a result. This article describes the applications, methods, evaluation procedures, performance, and limitations of NDE. It provides information on the training and certification of NDE operators, evaluation of test results, and guidance to method selection. Typical examples of various NDE methods for welds are also described.

This chapter discusses the types of sensors used in sheet forming operations and the information they provide. It explains how force sensors protect equipment from overloads due to tool wear, friction, and misfeeds, how displacement and proximity sensors help to prevent die crashes, how acoustic emission, ultrasonic, and eddy current sensors detect tool breakage and part defects such as cracks, and how roller ball and optical sensors measure material flow. It also discusses the role of draw-in, wrinkle, oil-monitoring, and vision sensors and explains how material properties can be derived in real time from various sensor outputs.

In forgings of both ferrous and nonferrous metals, the flaws that most often occur are caused by conditions that exist in the ingot, by subsequent hot working of the ingot or the billet, and by hot or cold working during forging. The inspection methods most commonly used to detect these flaws include visual, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, ultrasonic, eddy current, and radiographic inspection. This chapter provides a detailed discussion on the characteristics, process steps, applications, advantages, and limitations of these methods. It also describes the flaws caused by the forging operation and the principal factors that influence the selection of a nondestructive inspection method for forgings.

This chapter focuses on the inspection of steel bars for the detection and evaluation of flaws. The principles involved also apply, for the most part, to the inspection of steel wire. The nondestructive inspection methods discussed include magnetic particle inspection, liquid penetrant inspection, ultrasonic inspection, and electromagnetic inspection. Eddy current and magnetic permeability are also covered.

This chapter discusses the basic components in an induction heat treating system. It describes the design and operating characteristics of power supplies, load-matching transformers, tuning capacitors, power regulators, controllers, process monitors, and diagnostic systems. It also provides information on fixtures and work-handling devices, quench systems, and load matching and tuning procedures.