This chapter discusses the structural alloys being used for cryogenic applications in commercially significant quantities. It emphasizes the practical considerations involved in the material selection process and provides the information necessary to make preliminary selections of alloys most suitable for the intended cryogenic application. The chapter provides general information on a class or group of alloys, their representative mechanical and physical properties, and their fabrication characteristics. The materials covered are austenitic stainless steels, nickel steels, aluminum alloys, and other metals and alloys.

This chapter introduces the key powder fabrication attributes to assist in the identification of the right powders for an application. First, it describes the characteristics of engineering powders such as particle size distribution, powder shape and packing density, surface area, powder flow and rheology, and chemical analysis. The chapter then describes the general categories of powder fabrication methods, namely mechanical comminution, electrochemical precipitation, thermochemical reaction, and phase change and atomization. It provides information on the two largest contributors to powder price, namely raw material cost and conversion cost. The applicability of various processes to specific material systems is mentioned throughout this chapter.

The objective of mechanical testing of an engineered material is to provide data necessary for the analysis, design, and fabrication of structural components using the material. The testing of filament-wound composite materials offers unique challenges because of the special characteristics of composites. This chapter describes suitable static mechanical test techniques for characterizing laminated composite materials. The approach is to provide recommended techniques, based on consensus opinions of fabricators and users of filament-wound composites, and to survey available techniques that have been used successfully in the field. The chapter describes the effects of various factors on the properties of composite constituents, including fibers, resins, and unidirectional plies. Some aspects of specimen selection are also described. The chapter provides information on pressure bottles and tubular parts that have been developed as standard test specimens for combined load testing of composites.

This article discusses the composition, structures, properties, and behaviors of aluminum alloys and explains how they correspond to specific alloying elements. It begins with an overview of the general characteristics of wrought and cast aluminum alloys, the four-digit classification system by which they are defined, and the applications for which they are suited. It then explains how primary alloying elements, second-phase constituents, and impurities affect yield strength, phase formation, and grain size and how they induce structural changes that help refine certain alloys. The article also explains how primary alloying elements affect corrosion and wear behaviors and how they influence fabrication processes such as forming, forging, welding, brazing, and soldering.

Titanium is a lightweight metal used in a growing number of applications for its strength, toughness, stiffness, corrosion resistance, biocompatibility, and high-temperature operating characteristics. This chapter discusses the applications, metallurgy, properties, compositions, and grades of commercially pure titanium and alpha and near-alpha, alpha-beta, and beta titanium alloys. It describes primary and secondary fabrication processes, including melting, forging, forming, heat treating, casting, machining, and joining as well as powder metallurgy and direct metal deposition. It also compares and contrasts the properties of wrought, cast, and powder metal titanium products and discusses corrosion behaviors.

Aluminum is the second most widely used metal in the world. It is readily available, offers a wide range of properties, and can be shaped, coated, and joined using a variety of methods. This chapter discusses some of the key attributes of wrought and cast aluminum alloys and the classifications, designations, and grades of available product forms. It also explains how aluminum alloys are used in aerospace, automotive, rail, and marine applications as well as in building and construction, electrical products, manufacturing equipment, packaging, and consumer durables such as appliances and furniture.

This chapter deals with the technology of stainless steel as it pertains to its proper use in architecture, art, and construction. It begins with an overview of the corrosion resistance of stainless steel, providing guidelines for balancing corrosion resistance, processing characteristics, and economy. This is followed by sections describing the influence of surface finish on corrosion resistance of stainless steel and reviewing some of the factors pertinent to balancing service environment, design requirements, and maintenance considerations. The chapter then discusses the various factors pertinent to important considerations in buildings, namely surface finish aesthetics, flatness, maintenance, repair, fabrication, and service considerations. It ends with a section providing information on concrete reinforcing bar.

This appendix provides datasheets on high purity titanium, describing its processing characteristics, mechanical and fabrication properties, and heat treating practices.

This appendix provides datasheets describing the chemical composition, processing characteristics, mechanical and fabrication properties, and heat treating of commercially pure and modified titanium. The datasheets address four grades of unalloyed titanium (ASTM Grade 1, UNS R50250; ASTM Grade 2, UNS R50400; ASTM Grade 3, UNS R50550; and ASTM Grade 4, UNS R50700), two grades of modified titanium (ASTM Grade 7, UNS R52400; and ASTM Grade 11, UNS R52250), and alloy Ti-0.3Mo-0.8Ni (ASTM Grade 12, UNS R53400).

This appendix provides datasheets describing the chemical composition, processing characteristics, mechanical and fabrication properties, and heat treating of alpha and near-alpha titanium alloys. Datasheets are provided for the following alloys: Ti-3Al-2.5V (ASTM Grade 9, UNS R56320), Ti-5Al-2.5Sn (UNS R54520/R54521), Ti-6Al-2Nb-1Ta-0.8Mo (UNS R56210), Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo-0.08Si (UNS R54620), Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V (UNS R54810), and Ti-6Al-2.75Sn-4Zr-0.4Mo-0.45Si (Ti-1100).

This appendix provides datasheets describing the chemical composition, processing characteristics, mechanical and fabrication properties, and heat treating of various grades of alpha-beta titanium. Datasheets are provided for the following alloys: Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr (UNS: R58650, Ti-17); Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo (UNS R56260, Ti-6246); Ti-6Al-4V (UNS R56400) and Ti-6Al-4V ELI (UNS R56401); Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn (UNS R56620, Ti-662); Ti-7Al-4Mo (UNS R56740); Ti-6Al-1.7Fe-0.1Si (TiMetal 62S); Ti-4.5Al-3V-2Mo-2Fe (SP-700); Ti-6Al-7Nb (IMI 367); Ti-4Al-4Mo-2Sn-0.5Si (IMI 550); Ti-4Al-4Mo-4Sn-0.5Si (IMI 551); Ti-6Al-2Sn-2Zr-2Mo-2Cr-0.25Si (Ti-6-22-22S); Ti-5Al-2.5Fe (DIN 3.7110, Tikrutan LT 35); and Ti-5Al-5Sn-2Zr-2Mo-0.25Si (UNS R54560, Ti-5522-S).

This appendix provides datasheets describing the chemical composition, processing characteristics, mechanical and fabrication properties, and heat treating of beta and near-beta titanium alloys. Datasheets are provided for the following alloys: Ti-11.5Mo-6Zr-4.5Sn (UNS R58030, Beta III); Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr (UNS R58640, Beta C and 38-6-44); Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al (Ti-10-2-3); Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al (UNS R58010, Ti-13-11-3); Ti-15V-3Al-3Cr-3Sn (Ti-15-3); Ti-15Mo-3Al-2.7Nb-0.25Si (UNS R58210, TiMetal 21S and Beta 21S); Ti-5Al-2Sn-4Zr-4Mo-2Cr-1Fe (Beta CEZ); Ti-8Mo-8V-2Fe-3Al (Ti-8823); Ti-15Mo-5Zr; Ti-15Mo-5Zr-3Al; Ti-11.5V-2Al-2Sn-11Zr (T129); Ti-12V-2.5Al-2Sn-6Zr (T134); Ti-13V-2.7Al-7Sn-2Zr (T175); Ti-8V-5Fe-1Al; and Ti-16V-2.5Al.

This chapter discusses the properties and processing characteristics of glass, aramid, carbon, and ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene fibers and related product forms, including woven fabrics, prepreg, and reinforced mats. It also includes a review of fiber terminology as well as physical and mechanical property data for commercially important high-strength fibers.

The chapter presents an overview of the properties and operational limits of superconductive materials, as well as techniques used to fabricate practical superconducting wires. It introduces six properties: critical temperature, critical magnetic field, critical current density, stability, ac loss, and mechanical characteristics; for each property, typical data are provided and the experimental methods used to measure it are briefly described. The properties of the superconducting composites are tied together in the chapter to summarize their effect on superconductor material selection and the geometrical design of superconducting composites. The chapter also contains a reference guide to composite-design factors with links to the relevant chapter sections where each design consideration is addressed.

This chapter examines the stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) failure of stainless steel pipe welds in boiling water reactor (BWR) service. It explains where most of the failures have occurred and provides relevant details about the materials of construction, fabrication techniques, environmental factors, and cracking characteristics. It includes a model that accounts for the primary factors involved in intergranular SCC, namely, tensile stresses above the yield stress of the base material, a sensitized microstructure, and reactor cooling water. The chapter also provides proven remedies and mitigation techniques corresponding to a wide range of issues related to stress, sensitization, and operating conditions.

This chapter provides a qualitative overview of powder preparation technologies including milling, mechanical alloying, electrolytic dissolution, metal oxide reduction, solid-state reactive synthesis, and gas, water, and centrifugal atomization. It discusses the general implementation of each process, the materials for which they are used, and the powder characteristics that can be achieved.

Parts of machines and equipment that have previously been designed as wrought or fabricated parts, or as cast parts of metals other than steel, are often reconsidered as steel castings. This chapter presents bending test data for several junction designs of L and box sections and discusses redesign from fabrication, forgings, and cast iron. The chapter also includes the benefits of redesign.

Transistors are the most important active structure of any semiconductor component. Performance characteristics of such devices within the specifications are key to ensuring proper functionality and long-term reliability of the product. In this article, a summary of the semiconductor technology from design to manufacturing and the characterization methods are discussed. The focus is on two prominent MOS structures: planar MOS device and FinFET device. The article covers the device parameters and device properties that determine the design criteria and the device tuning procedures. The discussion includes the effects of drain induced barrier lowering, velocity saturation, hot carrier degradation, and short channel on these devices.

This chapter provides a general description of materials and methods for manufacturing high-performance composites. The materials covered are polymer matrices and prepreg materials and the methods include infusion processes, composite-toughening methods, matrix-toughening methods, and dispersed-phase toughening. In addition, the chapter provides information on interlayer-toughened composites and honeycomb or foam structure composite materials. It also discusses the processes in optical microscopy of composite materials.