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This chapter discusses the formation and growth of various integrated steel companies from 1901 to 1959, namely the United States Steel Corporation, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, and a few of the notable smaller steel companies. The chapter discusses labor unrest and the growth of organized labor in the steel industry in the twentieth century.

This chapter discusses the development of aluminum, its industry growth, and its modern uses in manufacturing. It begins with the biography of Charles Martin Hall, who invented the process for reducing aluminum from its ore. The evolution of aluminum production from the Pittsburgh Reduction Company to a pilot plant on Smallman Street in Pittsburgh, to a production plant in New Kensington, and to Niagara Falls, New York, is then described. This is followed by a discussion on early aluminum applications and the usage of lower-cost raw materials. The chapter provides information on aluminum production process integrated by Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) and the numerous technical problems and solutions related to Alcoa's research from World War I to World War II. The aerospace applications for aluminum alloys are also presented. The chapter concludes with a section on aluminum alloys developed by Alcoa.

This chapter is an account of the various events that led to the decline of the integrated steel industry during the 1950s. These include the steel strike of 1959, the improvements in technology and increase in imports since 1950s, widespread closures of steel companies, the decline of the minimill industry, and the rapid growth of Mittal Steel.

This chapter provides insights into the work of a stainless steel pioneer, Harry Brearley. It explains how Brearley's early life and experience led him to become a self-trained chemist and metallurgist.

This chapter covers the biographies and literary and research work of pioneers in metals research, namely Henry Marion Howe, Albert Sauveur, Isaiah (Zay) Jeffries, Paul Dyer Merica, Edgar C. Bain, Samuel Leslie Hoyt, and Francis L. VerSnyder.

This chapter focuses on the evolution of steel production from 1870 to 1900. It begins with a review of the life of the inventor of the air-boiling process, William Kelly. This is followed by a discussion on how Bessemer's air-blowing process entered the steel production industry and the development of the Kelly-Bessemer process by Alexander Holley. The chapter then discusses how Andrew Carnegie lowered the cost to produce steel, how he entered the iron and steelmaking industry, and how Captain Billy Jones joined Carnegie to expand Carnegie steel. The chapter further provides information on the great strike of 1892 at Homestead and the rapid growth in steel markets. It ends with a discussion about the factors that led Carnegie to sell his steel empire.

This chapter provides information on the biennial International Wear of Materials Conference, which is the inspiration for this book. It reviews the fundamentals of tribology, tribosystems, and related terminology. The glossary at the end of this chapter is intended to familiarize readers with some of the fundamental tribology terms that will be repeated throughout this book.

A typical mobile processor die may contain, among other things, a variety of high-performance as well as low-power processing cores along with 5G modems, Wi-Fi modules, image processors, GPUs, and security modules, with a total transistor count exceeding 10 billion. Such designs pose many challenges for yield ramp and diagnostics. This chapter examines these challenges and the growing demand for innovative solutions to help failure analysts quickly and accurately isolate faults. It also assesses the capabilities and future potential of ATPG scan diagnostics, streaming scan networks, and advanced fault models for diagnosing embedded memory.

This chapter describes the making of iconic structures such as the Chrysler Building. It also describes the discoveries of the Nirosta (18-8) stainless steel that was used for the construction of the Chrysler Building. The chapter presents William Van Alen's description of 18-8 stainless steel for the Chrysler Building. It provides information on the opening ceremonies for the Chrysler Building, Van Alen's vision, and the exterior of the building.

The first step in die-level failure analysis is to narrow the search to a specific circuit or transistor group. Then begins the post-isolation process which entails further localizing the defect, determining its electrical, physical, and chemical properties, and examining its microstructure in order to identify the root cause of failure. This chapter assesses the tools and techniques used for those purposes and the challenges brought on by continued transistor scaling, advanced 3D packages, and new IC architectures. The areas covered include sample preparation, nanoprobing, microscopy, FIB circuit edit, and scanning probe microscopy.

This chapter is a detailed account of the history of development of titanium and its modern applications in the aerospace market. It begins by discussing the attempts made to produce titanium metal. This is followed by a discussion on the invention of a process for making titanium by William Kroll. Various studies on the properties on titanium and research programs related to the production of titanium sponge and titanium metal products are then described. The chapter concludes with a discussion of titanium use in jet engines.

This chapter describes how notches affect the load-carrying capacity and fatigue life of materials under cyclic loads. It explains that stresses and strains can be three to four times higher in the vicinity of a notch, greatly accelerating fatigue damage. It discusses the use of stress concentration factors and how they are determined for the general case and for specific geometries, materials, and surface conditions. The chapter covers both elastic and plastic fatigue behaviors as well as a wide range of methods. It also explains how small nuances in loading can introduce tensile or compressive stress in the hysteresis loops causing variations in fatigue life as large as 50:1 depending on where the transition in fatigue behavior occurs.

This chapter describes the applications with the greatest impact on titanium consumption and global market trends. It explains where, how, and why titanium alloys are used in aerospace, automotive, chemical processing, medical, and military applications as well as power generating equipment, sporting goods, oil and gas production, and marine vessels.

Nickel-base alloys are generally used in harsh environments that demand either corrosion resistance or high-temperature strength. This article first describes the general welding characteristics of nickel-base alloys. It then describes the weldability of solid-solution nickel-base alloys in terms of grain boundary precipitation, grain growth, and hot cracking in the heat-affected zone; fusion zone segregation and porosity; and postweld heat treatments. Next, the article analyzes the welding characteristics of dissimilar and clad materials. This is followed by sections summarizing the various types and general weldability of age-hardened nickel-base alloys. The article then discusses the composition, welding metallurgy, and properties of cast nickel-base superalloys. Finally, it provides information on the welding of dissimilar metals, filler metal selection for welding clad materials and for overlay cladding, service conditions during repair, and welding procedural idiosyncrasies of cobalt-base alloys.

Steel is broadly classified as plain-carbon steels, low-alloy steels, and high-alloy steels. This chapter begins by describing microconstituents of low- and medium-carbon steel, including bainite and martensite. This is followed by a section discussing the effect of alloying elements on steel. Then, it provides an overview of steel casting applications. Next, the chapter reviews engineering guidelines for steel castings and feeder design. The following section provides information on feeding aids. Further, the chapter describes the elements of gating systems for steel castings. It also describes the alloys, properties, applications, and engineering details of steel. Finally, the chapter explains defects in steel castings and presents guidelines for problem solving with examples.