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crystallographic texture
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.msisep.t59220403
EISBN: 978-1-62708-259-4
... International , 2005 12.1 Cold Work 12.2 The Effects of Subcritical Annealing in Steels for Forming 12.3 Crystallographic Texture <xref rid="t59220403-ref13" ref-type="bibr">(Ref 13)</xref> 12.4 Following Recrystallization Using Microscopy 12.5 Medium-Carbon Steels 12.6 Electrical Steels...
Abstract
With cold work, mechanical strength (measured either by yield strength or ultimate tensile strength) increases and ductility (measured by elongation, reduction of area, or fracture toughness) normally decreases. This chapter discusses the mechanisms that produce these changes and the factors that influence them. It explains how cold working increases dislocation density and how that affects the stress-strain characteristics of steel, particularly the onset of deformation. It describes the effects of deformation on ferrite, austenite, cementite, and pearlite, and how to optimize their microstructure for various applications through controlled deformation. It also provides information on subcritical annealing, the examination and control of texture, the use of optical microscopy to monitor the effects of recrystallization, and the effect of cold working on threaded fasteners, nails, and filaments used to manufacture cords.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.tpmpa.t54480095
EISBN: 978-1-62708-318-8
... as a result of crystallographic texture is called texture strengthening ( Ref 5.2 , 5.3 ). It is most pronounced in alpha-titanium alloys and offers a potential method for improved design in biaxial stress applications such as rocket cases and pressure bottles. Resistance to additional amounts of cold...
Abstract
Titanium, like other metals, can be shaped, formed, and strengthened through deformation processes. This chapter describes the structural changes that occur in titanium during deformation and how they can be controlled. It discusses the role of slip, dislocations, and twinning, the effect of grain size and crystal orientation, the concept of texture strengthening, and the principles of strain hardening and superplasticity. It also discusses the effect of annealing and the difference between recrystallization and neocrystallization processes.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240117
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
... . With increasing degrees of deformation, the original grains are severely distorted, to the point where they fracture into smaller grains. Heavy cold working also leads to a preferred orientation, or texture, in which the grains become oriented along certain crystallographic planes in a preferred manner...
Abstract
Annealing, a heat treatment process, is used to soften metals that have been hardened by cold working. This chapter discusses the following three distinct processes that can occur during annealing: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The types of processes that occur during recovery are the annihilation of excess point defects, the rearrangement of dislocations into lower-energy configurations, and the formation of subgrains that grow and interlock into sub-boundaries. The article also discusses the main factors that affect recrystallization. They are temperature and time; degree of cold work; purity of the metal; original grain size; and temperature of deformation. The types of grain growth discussed include normal or continuous grain growth and abnormal or discontinuous grain growth.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ttg2.t61120095
EISBN: 978-1-62708-269-3
... is linear. Other, less important sources of strengthening are interstitial solid solution strengthening, grain size effects, second-phase (beta) effects, ordering in alpha, age hardening, and effects of crystallographic texture. Aluminum in Ti-6Al-4V gives rise to some tendency toward ordering...
Abstract
This chapter examines the process, structure, and property relationships in titanium alloys. It provides information on microstructures and strengthening mechanisms, the role of alloy and interstitial elements, and the effect of composition, processing, and surface treatments on tensile and yield strength, fracture toughness, hardness, ductility, and creep and fatigue behaviors. The chapter covers wrought, cast, and powder metal titanium alloys and contains an extensive amount of property data.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ahsssta.t53700135
EISBN: 978-1-62708-279-2
... of high strength and ductility and a reorientation of crystallographic texture. At room temperature, the microstructure of Fe-Mn alloys is dominated by the presence of cubic α-martensite at low manganese content, and hexagonal ε-martensite at high manganese content. Both types of martensite can also...
Abstract
This chapter briefly discusses the characteristics of mechanical twins and stacking faults in close-packed planes. It provides an overview of the composition, microstructures, thermodynamics, processing, deformation mechanism, mechanical properties, formability, and special attributes of twinning-induced plasticity steels.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.msisep.t59220085
EISBN: 978-1-62708-259-4
..., they are also diffracted. In recent decades, with the improvement in detectors and computational power, the diffraction information from the BE has turned into an important source of complementary structural information. Crystallographic texture, relative orientation of grains, crystal structure, phase...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the use of electron microscopy in metallographic analysis. It explains how electrons interact with metals and how these interactions can be harnessed to produce two- and three-dimensional images of metal surfaces and generate crystallographic and compositional data as well. It discusses the basic design and operating principles of scanning electron microscopes, transmission electron microscopes, and scanning transmission electron microscopes and how they are typically used. It describes the additional information contained in backscattered electrons and emitted x-rays and the methods used to access it, namely wavelength and energy dispersive spectroscopy and electron backscattering diffraction techniques. It also describes the role of focused ion beam milling in sample preparation and provides information on atom probes, atomic force microscopes, and laser scanning microscopes.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 July 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.bcp.t52230295
EISBN: 978-1-62708-298-3
.... For this reason, all beryllium products should be formed at elevated temperatures, generally 540 to 815 °C (1000 to 1500 °F) and at slow speeds. The primary factors influencing the formability of beryllium are grain size, texture, impurity content, prior metalworking history, ductility as a function...
Abstract
The vast majority of beryllium products are manufactured from blocks, forms, or billets of compacted powder that are machined or worked into shape. This chapter describes the metalworking processes used, including rolling, forming, forging, extrusion, drawing, and spinning. It covers the qualitative and quantitative aspects of each process and provides examples showing how they are implemented and the results that can be achieved. The chapter also discusses the issue of beryllium’s low formability and describes some of the advancements that have been made in near-net shape processing.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240509
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
... on the specific alloy. Wrought alloys also develop crystallographic texturing during mechanical deformation, leading to anisotropic mechanical properties. For example, a rolled sheet with a tensile strength of 220 MPa (32 ksi) and 2% elongation measured parallel to the rolling direction may display higher...
Abstract
Magnesium occupies the highest anodic position on the galvanic series and can be subject to severe corrosion. The corrosion problem is due to the impurity elements iron, nickel, and copper. However, the use of higher-purity magnesium alloys has led to corrosion resistance approaching that of some of the competing aluminum casting alloys. This chapter begins with a general overview of magnesium metallurgy and alloy designations and moves on to discuss in detail the nominal compositions, mechanical properties, heat treatment, fabrication, and corrosion protection of magnesium casting alloys and wrought magnesium alloys. It also discusses the nominal compositions, properties, and applications of commercially pure zinc, zinc casting alloys, and wrought zinc alloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2017
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.sccmpe2.t55090271
EISBN: 978-1-62708-266-2
... on the alloy and its heat treatment, orientation, and loading rate. Because of the significant anisotropy (crystallographic texture) developed during α or α/β forging and/or rolling of a phase, α and α/β titanium alloys generally exhibit a pronounced preferred orientation for the stress-corrosion fracture path...
Abstract
Titanium alloys are generally resistant to stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), but under certain conditions, the potential for problems exists. This chapter identifies the types of service environments where titanium alloys have exhibited signs of SCC. It begins by describing the nominal composition, designation, and grade of nearly two dozen commercial titanium alloys and the different types of media (including oxidizers, organic compounds, hot salt, and liquid metal) in which SCC has been observed. It discusses the mechanical and metallurgical factors that influence SCC behavior and examines the cracking and fracture mechanisms that appear to be involved. The chapter also includes information on SCC test standards and provides detailed guidelines on how to prevent or mitigate the effects of SCC.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 July 2009
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.bcp.t52230361
EISBN: 978-1-62708-298-3
.... There is no limit to the thickness of the sprayed part. The process is most cost-effective for thin parts where significant amounts of machining would otherwise be required. A constant or variable profile thickness with uniform texture can be built up on a substrate using a computerized program. Depending...
Abstract
This chapter discusses coating technologies that are applicable to beryllium, including physical and chemical vapor deposition, thermal evaporation, electroplating, sputtering, ion plating, and plasma arc spraying. It describes the advantages and disadvantages of each method and the effect of temperature, pressure, and other process variables on the microstructures and properties developed.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2001
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aub.t61170417
EISBN: 978-1-62708-297-6
...-processing. Beta processing and/or final β-heat-treatment improves both air and aqueous toughness by improving chemical homogeneity, randomizing crystallographic texture, and providing a structure with greatest crack-path tortuosity. As discussed previously for α-alloys, α-β alloys containing higher...
Abstract
This article discusses the role of alloying in the production and use of titanium. It explains how alloying elements affect transformation temperatures, tensile and creep strength, elasticity, hardness, and corrosion behaviors. It provides composition and property data for commercial grades of titanium, addresses processing issues, and identifies operating environments where certain titanium alloys are susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ttg2.t61120345
EISBN: 978-1-62708-269-3
.... , On the Importance of Crystallographic Texture in the Characterization of Alpha Based Titanium Alloys , Scr. Metall. , Vol 2 , 1976 , p 17 – 21 10.1016/0036-9748(77)90005-9 • Boyer R.R. et al. , Comparative Evaluation on Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al Cast, PM and Wrought Product Forms , Powder Metall. Int...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ffub.t53610209
EISBN: 978-1-62708-303-4
... volume fractions of the alpha phase can be quite anisotropic with respect to fatigue performance. Because the texture in alpha-beta alloys can be varied to a larger extent than in alpha alloys, the effect of crystallographic texture on fatigue behavior has been mainly studied in Ti-6Al-4V. In contrast...
Abstract
This chapter provides information and data on the fatigue and fracture properties of steel, aluminum, and titanium alloys. It explains how microstructure, grain size, inclusions, and other factors affect the fracture toughness and fatigue life of these materials and the extent to which they can be optimized. It also discusses the effect of metalworking and heat treatment, the influence of loading and operating conditions, and factors such as corrosion damage that can accelerate crack growth rates.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ssde.t52310173
EISBN: 978-1-62708-286-0
... to become flat stock, they may retain a preferred crystallographic orientation, called texture , as a result of the deformation. This nonrandom crystal structure can cause the material to have higher strength in the through-thickness direction. This directional variation in properties is called anisotropy...
Abstract
The various types of stainless steel have very different deformation characteristics in terms of strain hardening and anisotropy. It is important to understand and exploit these characteristics to optimize forming of stainless steels. This chapter discusses the various deformation processes involved in sheet-forming techniques, namely stretch forming and deep drawing. In addition, it provides information on some of the factors pertinent to cold-heading and hot forming of stainless long products.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ex2.t69980141
EISBN: 978-1-62708-342-3
... ] Specific crystallographic directions are characterized by high rates of growth leading to preferentially orientated columnar grains that suppress others and enable a cast structure to develop. Preferred growth direction is the reason for the formation of fir tree dendrites seen, for example, in cast iron...
Abstract
This chapter explains the basic terminology and principles of metallurgy as they apply to extrusion. It begins with an overview of crystal structure in metals and alloys, including crystal defects and orientation. This is followed by sections discussing the development of the continuous cast microstructure of aluminum and copper alloys. The discussion provides information on billet and grain segregation and defects in continuous casting. The chapter then discusses the processes involved in the deformation of pure metals and alloys at room temperature. Next, it describes the characteristics of pure metals and alloys at higher temperatures. The processes involved in extrusion are then covered. The chapter provides details on how the toughness and fracture characteristics of metals and alloys affect the extrusion process. The weld seams in hollow profiles, the production of composite profiles, and the processing of composite materials, as well as the extrusion of metal powders, are discussed. The chapter ends with a discussion on the factors that define the extrudability of metallic materials and how these attributes are characterized.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mgppis.t60400149
EISBN: 978-1-62708-258-7
...) the (311) peak is used. For further information about using x-ray diffraction for measuring residual stresses, consult the references at the end of the chapter. Another application of x-ray diffraction is to measure the crystallographic texture or orientation of the crystalline grains in a sample...
Abstract
Several specialized instruments are available for the metallographer to use as tools to gather key information on the characteristics of the microstructure being analyzed. These include microscopes that use electrons as a source of illumination instead of light and x-ray diffraction equipment. This chapter describes how these instruments can be used to gather important information about a microstructure. The instruments covered include image analyzers, transmission electron microscopes, scanning electron microscopes, electron probe microanalyzers, scanning transmission electron microscopes, x-ray diffractometers, microhardness testers, and hot microhardness testers. A list of other instruments that are usually located in a research laboratory or specialized testing laboratory is also provided.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ssde.t52310109
EISBN: 978-1-62708-286-0
... low-alloy ferritic stainless. AL 466 is recognized as S40930 Abstract Abstract This chapter discusses the alloy composition, metallurgy, mechanical behavior, stabilization, texture, anisotropy, high-temperature properties, and corrosion and oxidation resistance of ferritic stainless steels...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.tt2.t51060209
EISBN: 978-1-62708-355-3
... or crystallographic texture during deformation. According to Eq 1 , if the constitutive equation for stress-strain behavior is of the form σ = Kε n , then a logarithmic plot of true stress versus true strain results in a straight line with a slope equal to n. However, this is not always found to be the case...
Abstract
This chapter focuses on short-term tensile testing at high temperatures. It emphasizes one of the most important reasons for conducting hot tensile tests: the determination of the hot working characteristics of metallic materials. Two types of hot tensile tests are discussed in this chapter, namely, the Gleeble test and the conventional isothermal hot-tensile test. The discussion covers equipment used and testing procedures for the Gleeble test along with information on hot ductility and strength data from this test. The chapter describes the stress-strain curves, material coefficients, and flow behavior determined in the isothermal hot tensile test. It also describes three often-overlapping stages of cavitation during tensile deformation, namely, cavity nucleation, growth of individual cavities, and cavity coalescence.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2015
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410233
EISBN: 978-1-62708-265-5
... are favored to produce (111) [110] cube on corner crystallographic textures of the batch annealed sheet. Steel sheets with (111)[110] texture have ferrite grains oriented to minimize dislocation motion on slip systems that cause thinning and necking instability. Microstructures with these textures have...
Abstract
This chapter discusses various alloying and processing approaches to increase the strength of low-carbon steels. It describes hot-rolled low-carbon steels, cold-rolled and annealed low-carbon steels, interstitial-free or ultra-low carbon steels, high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels, dual-phase (DP) steels, transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels, and martensitic low-carbon steels. It also discusses twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steels along with quenched and partitioned (Q&P) steels.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240487
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
... recrystallization and grain growth. Other microstructural features that can affect properties include oxide inclusions, porosity, grain size and shape, and crystallographic textures that can lead to anistropic properties. Strengthening of non-heat-treatable alloys is a result of a combination of solid-solution...
Abstract
Aluminum has many outstanding properties, leading it to be used for a wide range of applications. It offers excellent strength-to-weight ratio, good corrosion and oxidation resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity, exceptional formability, and relatively low cost. This chapter examines the metallurgy, composition, processing, and mechanical properties of aluminum and its alloys, both cast and wrought forms. It also covers heat treating and basic temper designations, including annealed, work hardened, solution heat treated, and solution heated treated and aged. The chapter concludes with information on corrosion and oxidation resistance.