This chapter is a compilation of beryllium phase diagrams, representing more than 25 binary alloy systems from beryllium-aluminum to beryllium-zirconium. Each diagram is presented along with a summary and source reference.

This chapter discusses the phase transformations of peritectic alloy systems. It describes the processes involved with equilibrium and nonequilibrium freezing, the mechanisms of peritectic formation, and the resulting microstructures. It also discusses the formation of peritectic structures in iron-base alloys and multicomponent systems.

Phase diagrams are graphical representations that show the phases present in the material at various compositions, temperatures, and pressures. This chapter begins with a section describing the construction of phase diagrams for the simple binary isomorphous system. A binary phase diagram can be used to determine three important types of information: the phases that are present, the composition of the phases, and the percentages or fractions of the phases. The chapter then describes the construction of one common type of binary phase diagram i.e., the eutectic alloy system. The major eutectic systems include the aluminum-silicon eutectic system and the lead-tin eutectic system. The chapter discusses the construction of eutectic phase diagrams from free energy curves. It also provides information on peritectic, monotectic, and solid-state reactions in alloy systems. The presence of intermediate phases is also described. Finally, a brief section provides some information on ternary phase diagrams.

This chapter presents an overview and survey of solder alloy systems. Extensive reference is made to phase diagrams and their interpretation. The chapter describes the effect of metallic impurities on different solders. The chapter concludes with a review of the key characteristics of eutectic alloys and of the factors most effective at depressing the melting point of solders by eutectic alloying.

This chapter presents an overview of families of brazing alloys that one is likely to encounter in a manufacturing environment. It discusses the metallurgical aspects of brazing and includes a survey of brazing alloy systems. A discussion of deleterious and beneficial impurities is provided with examples. The chapter also describes the application of phase diagrams to brazing.

Phases are distinct states of aggregation of matter and one of the primary leverage points for understanding and applying materials. This chapter discusses the phase nature of metals and alloys, the concept of solid solutions, and the use of phase diagrams. It also describes some of the metallurgical effects of freezing or solidification, including the segregation of solutes and the formation of metal glasses.

This article discusses the composition, structures, properties, and behaviors of aluminum alloys and explains how they correspond to specific alloying elements. It begins with an overview of the general characteristics of wrought and cast aluminum alloys, the four-digit classification system by which they are defined, and the applications for which they are suited. It then explains how primary alloying elements, second-phase constituents, and impurities affect yield strength, phase formation, and grain size and how they induce structural changes that help refine certain alloys. The article also explains how primary alloying elements affect corrosion and wear behaviors and how they influence fabrication processes such as forming, forging, welding, brazing, and soldering.

This chapter explains how the presence of intermediate phases affects the melting behavior of binary alloys and the transformations that occur under different rates of cooling. It begins by examining the phase diagrams of magnesium-lead and copper-zinc, noting some of the complexities associated with intermediate phases. It then discusses the difference between ordered and disordered phases and how they are accounted for on phase diagrams. It describes how the atoms in a disordered solution may arrange themselves into an ordered array, forming a superlattice in the process of cooling, and goes on to identify the most common superlattice structures and their corresponding alloy phases. It also discusses the factors that limit the formation of superlattices along with the kinetics of spinodal decomposition and its effect on microstructure development.

Brazing and soldering processes use a molten filler metal to wet the mating surfaces of a joint, with or without the aid of a fluxing agent, leading to the formation of a metallurgical bond between the filler and the respective components. This chapter discusses the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of brazing and soldering. The first part focuses on the fundamentals of the brazing process and provides information on filler metals and specific brazing methods. The soldering portion of the chapters provides information on solder alloys used, selection criteria for base metal, the processes involved in precleaning and surface preparation, types of fluxes used, solder joint design, and solder heating methods.

This chapter describes the metallurgy, composition, and properties of steels and other alloys. It provides information on the atomic structure of metals, the nature of alloy phases, and the mechanisms involved in phase transformations, including time-temperature effects and the role of diffusion, nucleation, and growth. It also discusses alloying, heat treating, and defect formation and briefly covers condenser tube materials.

Aluminum casting alloy compositions parallel those of wrought alloys in many respects. However, because work hardening plays no significant role in the development of casting properties, the use and purposes of some alloying elements differ in casting alloys versus wrought alloys. This chapter provides information on specifications and widely used designation systems and alloy nomenclature for aluminum casting alloys. It describes the composition of seven basic families of aluminum casting alloys: aluminum-copper, aluminum-silicon-copper, aluminum-silicon, aluminum-silicon-magnesium, aluminum-magnesium, aluminum-zinc-magnesium, and aluminum-tin. The chapter discusses the effects of alloying elements on the properties of cast aluminum. It provides information on various alloys that are grouped with respect to their applications or major performance characteristics.

This chapter describes the physical characteristics, properties, and behaviors of solid solutions under equilibrium conditions. It begins with a review of a single-component pure metal system and its unary phase diagram. It then examines the solid solution formed by copper and nickel atoms. It discusses the difference between interstitial and substitutional solid solutions and the factors that determine the type of solution that two metals are likely to form. It also addresses the development of intermediate phases, the role of free energy, transformation kinetics, liquid-to-solid and solid-state phase transformations, and the allotropic nature of metals.

This chapter describes the causes of cracking, embrittlement, and low toughness in carbon and low-alloy steels and their differentiating fracture surface characteristics. It discusses the interrelated effects of composition, processing, and microstructure and contributing factors such as hot shortness associated with copper and overheating and burning as occur during forging. It addresses various types of embrittlement, including quench embrittlement, tempered-martensite embrittlement, liquid-metal-induced embrittlement, and hydrogen embrittlement, and concludes with a discussion on high-temperature hydrogen attack and its effect on strength and ductility.

This chapter explains the basic terminology and principles of metallurgy as they apply to extrusion. It begins with an overview of crystal structure in metals and alloys, including crystal defects and orientation. This is followed by sections discussing the development of the continuous cast microstructure of aluminum and copper alloys. The discussion provides information on billet and grain segregation and defects in continuous casting. The chapter then discusses the processes involved in the deformation of pure metals and alloys at room temperature. Next, it describes the characteristics of pure metals and alloys at higher temperatures. The processes involved in extrusion are then covered. The chapter provides details on how the toughness and fracture characteristics of metals and alloys affect the extrusion process. The weld seams in hollow profiles, the production of composite profiles, and the processing of composite materials, as well as the extrusion of metal powders, are discussed. The chapter ends with a discussion on the factors that define the extrudability of metallic materials and how these attributes are characterized.

This chapter discusses the basic principles of precipitation hardening, an important strengthening mechanism in nonferrous alloys as well as stainless steel. It begins with a detailed review of the theory of precipitation hardening, then describes its application to aluminum alloys and nickel-base superalloys.

Compared with other deformation processes used to produce semifinished products, the hot-working extrusion process has the advantage of applying pure compressive forces in all three force directions, enhancing workability. The available variations in the extrusion process enable a wide spectrum of materials to be extruded. This chapter focuses on the processes involved in the extrusion of semifinished products in various metals and their alloys, namely tin, lead, lead-base soft solders, tin-base soft solders, zinc, magnesium, aluminum, copper, titanium, zirconium, iron, nickel, and powder metals. It discusses their properties and applications as well as suitable equipment for extrusion. It further discusses the processes involved in the extrusion of semifinished products in exotic alloys and extrusion of semifinished products from metallic composite materials.

This chapter begins with information on the historical development of aluminum alloy castings. It then covers the basic factors involved in the selection of a casting process. This is followed by sections describing the various categories of casting processes and their variants: expendable mold gravity-feed casting, nonexpendable (permanent) mold gravity feed casting, and pressure die casting. Next, the chapter describes the technologies used to produce premium engineered castings and when such castings may be relevant. The chapter concludes with descriptions of other process technologies used with castings, including metallurgical bonding, metal-matrix composites, and hot isostatic pressing.