This chapter familiarizes readers with the basic theory of molecular dynamics and its application in the study of materials. It explains how material properties and behaviors are determined through the iterative calculation of motion equations for a collection of atoms under a given set of conditions. It also provides a walk-through on the use of LAMMPS, an open-source molecular dynamics simulator, discussing the selections and inputs of relevance to practical materials problems.

This chapter discusses some of the more advanced methods and procedures used in failure analysis, including in-service material sampling, in situ microstructure analysis, and a form of punch testing that can determine the fracture toughness of any material from a tiny specimen. The chapter also covers quantitative fractography, fracture surface topography analysis, and the use of oxide dating as well as fault tree and failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) and computational techniques.

This chapter discusses the role of inverse analysis in providing input data for finite element simulations of metal forming processes. It describes the basic procedures for determining flow stress and friction by inverse analysis and for comparing experimental measurements with corresponding computed data. It also includes an example in which flow stress and friction were measured in compressed aluminum rings and the results used to verify the accuracy of predicted values.

This chapter discusses the use of finite-element methods for modeling cold forging processes. The discussion covers process modeling inputs, such as geometric parameters, material properties, and interface conditions, and includes several application examples.

This chapter provides an overview of how the disciplines of design, material, and manufacturing contribute to engineering for functional performance. It describes the interaction of product designers and casting engineers in product development. It discusses the consequences of component failure, uncertainty in data and assumptions, and selection of the factor of safety. The chapter also presents an overview of the functional requirements for product performance and provides an overview of product design development. It also presents a partial list of the different tests that are performed on prototypes and examples of product testing. The chapter describes the requirements of a traceability system.

After the fault-tree, a failure-cause identification method has identified potential failure causes and the failure analysis team has prepared a failure mode assessment and assignment (FMA&A). The team knows specifically what to search for when examining components and subassemblies from the failed system. There are numerous techniques and technologies available for examining and analyzing components and subassemblies, which are categorized as follows: optical approaches, dimensional inspection and related approaches, nondestructive test approaches, mechanical and environmental approaches, and chemical and composition analysis for assessing material characteristics. This chapter is a detailed account of the working principle and the steps involved in these techniques and technologies.

Most filament winding machines now have computer controls and at least three axes. Winding with four axes is increasingly common because the shapes of the products have evolved to include more complexity. The automation used on the winding machine and ancillary components does not eliminate the need for proper fiber handling. This chapter is a primer on modern filament winding equipment and its use, starting with an overview of machine control and then discussing the design and structural analysis of filament wound components such as pressure vessels, pipes, grid structures, deep sea oil platform drill risers, high-speed rotors, and filament-wound preforms.

The key to any successful part development is the proper choice of material, process, and design matched to the part performance requirements. This article presents examples of reliable material performance indicators and common practices to avoid. Simple tools and techniques for predicting plastic part performance (stiffness, strength/impact, creep/stress relaxation, and fatigue) integrated with manufacturing concerns (flow length and cycle time) are demonstrated for design and material selection.

This chapter discusses the use of finite-element modeling in forging design. It describes key modeling parameters and inputs, mesh generation and computation time, and process modeling outputs such as metal flow, strain rate, loading profiles, and microstructure. It also includes a variety of application examples.

This chapter presents a relatively simple method for estimating forging loads and flow stresses. The method uses the slab analysis technique and accounts for material properties, friction and heat transfer, press ram speed, forging geometry, and billet and die temperatures. The chapter demonstrates the use of the method and compares the results with measured values.

The inspection of castings normally involves checking for shape and dimensions, coupled with aided and unaided visual inspection for external discontinuities and surface quality. This chapter discusses methods for determining surface quality, internal discontinuities, and dimensional inspection. Casting defects including porosity, oxide films, inclusions, hot tears, metal penetration, and surface defects are reviewed. Liquid penetrant inspection, magnetic particle inspection, eddy current inspection, radiographic inspection, ultrasonic inspection, and leak testing for castings are discussed. The chapter provides information on the procedures involved in the inspection of castings that are limited to visual and dimensional inspections, weight testing, and hardness testing. It also discusses the use of computer equipment in foundry inspection operations.

Phase diagrams serve as a map to the phases present in an alloy at different temperatures and compositions. They also help in assessing mechanical properties, selecting heat treat temperatures, warning of possible solidification problems, and identifying routes for creating desired microstructures. This chapter familiarizes readers with the information contained in binary phase diagrams and the methods used to extract it. It explains how thermocouple measurements are used to determine liquidus, solidus, and eutectic reaction lines, how differential scanning calorimetry shows where phase reactions occur, and how x-ray diffraction identifies the actual phases present. It demonstrates the use of tie lines for determining phase composition at different temperatures and the application of the level rule to calculate phase fractions. It also discusses the CALPHAD method and presents computed binary phase diagrams that account for the presence of inclusions, oxygen content, and secondary phases.

The overall chemical composition of metals and alloys is most commonly determined by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and optical emission spectroscopy (OES). High-temperature combustion and inert gas fusion methods are typically used to analyze dissolved gases (oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen) and, in some cases, carbon and sulfur in metals. This chapter discusses the operating principles of XRF, OES, combustion and inert gas fusion analysis, surface analysis, and scanning auger microprobe analysis. The details of equipment set-up used for chemical composition analysis as well as the capabilities of related techniques of these methods are also covered.

This chapter assesses the potential impact of neural networks on package-level failure analysis, the challenges presented by next-generation semiconductor packages, and the measures that can be taken to maximize FA equipment uptime and throughput. It presents examples showing how neural networks have been trained to detect and classify PCB defects, improve signal-to-noise ratios in SEM images, recognize wafer failure patterns, and predict failure modes. It explains how new packaging strategies, particularly stacking and disintegration, complicate fault isolation and evaluates the ability of various imaging methods to locate defects in die stacks. It also presents best practices for sample preparation, inspection, and navigation and offers suggestions for improving the reliability and service life of tools.

This chapter discusses the basic steps of a failure investigation. It explains that the first step is to gather and document information about the failed component and its operating history. It advises investigators to visit the failure site as soon as possible to record damages and collect test specimens for subsequent examination and chemical analysis. It also discusses the role of mechanical property testing, the use of nondestructive evaluation, and the final step of generating a report.

This chapter explains how the authors assessed the potential risks of creep-fatigue in several aerospace applications using the tools and techniques presented in earlier chapters. It begins by identifying the fatigue regimes encountered in the main engines of the Space Shuttle. It then describes the types of damage observed in engine components and the methods used to mitigate problems. It also discusses the results of analyses that led to changes in design or approach and examines fatigue-related issues in turbine engines used in commercial aircraft.

This chapter addresses the question of how to deal with multiaxial stresses and strains when using the strain-range partitioning method to analyze the effects of creep fatigue. It is divided into three sections: a general discussion on the rationale used in formulating rules for treating multiaxiality, a concise listing of the rules, and an example problem in which axial creep-fatigue data is used to predict the torsional creep-fatigue life of type 304 and 316 stainless steel. The chapter also includes a brief introduction in which the authors outline the challenges presented by multiaxial loading and set practical limits on the problem they intend to treat.

This chapter gives an overview of how steel castings may be effectively adapted to modern concurrent engineering processes. The chapter discusses computer aided design programs, solid modeling, solidification simulation programs, and rapid prototyping.

There are numerous approximate methods, both analytical and numerical, for analyzing forging processes. None are perfect because of the assumptions made to simplify the mathematical approach, but all have merit. This chapter discusses the slab, upperbound, and finite element methods, covering basic principles, implementation, and advantages and disadvantages in various applications.

This chapter provides an overview of key elements in controlling the casting process, systems to confirm the quality of outgoing components, and the steps needed to launch a novel product. The discussion also provides information on process control tools and techniques; incoming material control; process control of sand preparation and system maintenance; metallic charge materials; product quality control; and melting, metallurgical, and mechanical testing.