Organic coatings (paints and plastic or rubber linings), metallic coatings, and nonmetallic inorganic coatings (conversion coatings, cements, ceramics, and glasses) are used in applications requiring corrosion protection. These coatings and linings may protect substrates by three basic mechanisms: barrier protection, chemical inhibition, and galvanic (sacrificial) protection. This chapter begins with a section on organic coating and linings, providing a detailed account of the steps involved in the coating process, namely, design and selection, surface preparation, application, and inspection and quality assurance. The next section discusses the methods by which metals, and in some cases their alloys, can be applied to almost all other metals and alloys: electroplating, electroless plating, hot dipping, thermal spraying, cladding, pack cementation, vapor deposition, ion implantation, and laser processing. The last section focuses on nonmetallic inorganic coatings including ceramic coating materials, conversion coatings, and anodized coatings.

This chapter examines methods of internal corrosion prediction for multiphase pipelines and details methodologies to perform internal corrosion direct assessment for natural gas pipelines. Further, real-time monitoring techniques for assessing actual corrosion at critical locations are discussed.

This chapter provides a detailed account of corrosion inhibitors for oil and gas production. It begins by discussing some of the demands of competitive industry on inhibitor formulations. It then describes the varying characteristics of oil wells, gas wells, water injection systems, and pipelines. The following sections provide information on the factors influencing corrosivity of produced fluids and the methods of inhibitor application. The chapter discusses the primary causes of corrosion problems and inhibition in waterfloods and provides an overview of bacteria-induced corrosion. Various laboratory testing methods of corrosion inhibitors and the methods used to monitor corrosion rates and inhibitor effectiveness are also presented. The chapter ends by providing information on quality control of inhibitors and computerization of inhibitor treating programs.

This chapter discusses the particular corrosion problems encountered and the methods of control used in petroleum production and the storage and transportation of oil and gas up to the refinery. It begins by describing those aspects of corrosion that tend to be unique to corrosion as encountered in applications involving oil and gas exploration and production. This is followed by a section reviewing the methods of corrosion control, namely the proper selection of materials, protective coatings, cathodic protection systems, use of inhibitors, use of nonmetallic materials, and control of the environment. The chapter ends with a discussion on the problems encountered and protective measures that are based on the state-of-the-art as practiced daily by corrosion and petroleum engineers and production personnel.

This chapter provides a detailed account of crevice corrosion of metals. It begins by describing various critical factors influencing crevice corrosion. This is followed by a section presenting selected examples of crevice corrosion of stainless steel, nickel alloys, aluminum alloys, and titanium alloys in different environments. Methods that have been developed for differentiating and ranking the resistance of alloys toward crevice corrosion are then reviewed. The chapter concludes by discussing various strategies for the prevention of crevice corrosion, namely design awareness, use of inhibitors, and potential control methods.

Titanium and its alloys are used chiefly for their high strength-to-weight ratio, but they also have excellent corrosion resistance, better even than stainless steels. Titanium, as the chapter explains, is protected by a tenacious oxide film that forms rapidly on exposed surfaces. The chapter discusses the factors that influence the growth and quality of this naturally passivating film, particularly the role of oxidizing and inhibiting species, temperature, and alloying elements. It also discusses the effect of different corrosion processes and environments as well as hydrogen, stress-corrosion cracking, liquid metal embrittlement, and surface treatments.

Titanium alloys are generally resistant to stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), but under certain conditions, the potential for problems exists. This chapter identifies the types of service environments where titanium alloys have exhibited signs of SCC. It begins by describing the nominal composition, designation, and grade of nearly two dozen commercial titanium alloys and the different types of media (including oxidizers, organic compounds, hot salt, and liquid metal) in which SCC has been observed. It discusses the mechanical and metallurgical factors that influence SCC behavior and examines the cracking and fracture mechanisms that appear to be involved. The chapter also includes information on SCC test standards and provides detailed guidelines on how to prevent or mitigate the effects of SCC.

This chapter focuses on the effects of microscopic organisms and the by-products they produce on the electrochemical corrosion of metals. It begins by considering the characteristics of organisms that allow them to interact with the corrosion processes, the mechanisms by which organisms can influence the occurrence or rate of corrosion, and the types of corrosion most often influenced by microbes. The chapter then discusses the formation of biofilms on the surface of metals. This is followed by a list of industries most often reported as being affected by microbiological corrosion, along with the organisms usually implicated in the attack. The types of attack that have most commonly been documented are illustrated through generalized case histories for different classes of alloys. The chapter also describes the general approaches to be taken to prevent microbiologically influenced corrosion. It ends with some information on the inhibition of corrosion by the action of bacteria.

Aluminum products are used extensively in natural atmospheres and in and around water. They are also widely used in building materials and as containers for chemicals and food and beverage products. This chapter discusses the corrosion mechanisms associated with these environments and the influence of various factors and prevention methods. It also includes an extensive amount of data of corrosion rates, corrosion resistance, and changes in mechanical properties.

This chapter explains how polymeric adhesives are applied to composite as well as metal parts, forming bonded structures. It describes surface preparation practices and techniques, epoxy selection and use, and bonding procedures.

This article provides a basic review of polymer photochemistry as it relates to the weatherability of engineering plastics, considering the chemistry induced by exposure to sunlight in open air. Elementary aspects of weatherability chemistry that are discussed include the light wavelengths responsible for polymer photochemistry, problems with artificial light sources, general photooxidation and specific photochemical reactions important in plastics, and the factors influencing the rate of degradation. The approaches used to stabilize plastics against photochemical damage, including ultraviolet light absorbers, oxidation inhibitors, and the use of protective coatings, are also considered.

This chapter discusses the corrosion behavior of titanium, the types of corrosion that can occur, and the effect of alloying on corrosion resistance. It explains that, due to its tenacious oxide film, titanium has excellent corrosion resistance in oxidizing environments and that the resistance can be extended into the “reducing-acid” region by adding a small amount of palladium. It describes how different grades of titanium respond to different forms of attack, including uniform, crevice, and galvanic corrosion. It also identifies applications where corrosion is often a concern.

This chapter outlines the step-by-step processes by which materials are selected in order to prevent or control corrosion and includes information on materials that are resistant to the various forms of corrosion. The various forms of corrosion covered are general (uniform) corrosion, localized corrosion, galvanic corrosion, intergranular corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, hydrogen damage, and erosion-corrosion. In addition, the economic importance of cost-effective materials selection is also considered.

Adhesive bonding is a widely used industrial joining process in which a polymeric material is used to join two separate pieces (the adherends or substrates). This chapter begins with a discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of adhesive bonding, followed by a section providing information on the theory of adhesion. The chapter then describes the considerations for designing adhesively bonded joints and for testing or characterizing adhesive materials. The following section covers the characteristics of the most important synthetic adhesive systems and five groups of adhesives, namely structural, hot melt, pressure sensitive, water based, and ultraviolet and electron beam cured. The chapter ends with a discussion on some general guidelines for adhesive bonding and the basic steps in the adhesive bonding process.

Corrosion can be defined as a chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of the material and its properties. This chapter describes the effects and economic impact of corrosion in major industrial plants. The emphasis in this chapter, as well as in other chapters in this book, is on aqueous corrosion, or corrosion in environments where water is present. The chapter describes the classification of various forms of corrosion based on the nature of the corrodent, mechanism of corrosion, and appearance of the corroded metal. It discusses five primary methods of corrosion control, namely, material selection, coatings, inhibitors, cathodic protection, and design. Examples of the opportunities in corrosion control and the means to implement a program to capitalize on those opportunities are presented in a table. The chapter concludes with varied sources of information pertaining to corrosion and corrosion prevention.

This chapter discusses the basic principles of corrosion, explaining how and why it occurs and how it is categorized and dealt with based on the appearance of corrosion damage or the mechanism of attack. It explains where different forms of corrosion are likely to occur and identifies metals likely to be affected. It also discusses the selection and use of protective coatings and the tests that have been developed to measure their effectiveness.

This chapter discusses corrosion prevention methods used with aluminum and its alloys. The methods range from relatively straightforward measures, such as proper handling and storage, to advanced early warning corrosion monitoring systems for military aircraft. The chapter summarizes the basic factors that influence design for corrosion resistance and discusses the use of conversion coatings, organic coatings, porcelain enameling, and electroplating. It also discusses corrosion monitoring methods used in chemical processing and refining industries.

This chapter addresses the issue of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) in carbon and low-alloy steels. It discusses crack initiation, propagation, and fracture in aqueous chloride, hydrogen sulfide, sulfuric acid, hydroxide, ammonia, nitrate, ethanol, methanol, and hydrogen gas environments. It explains how composition and microstructure influence SCC, as do mechanical properties such as strength and fracture toughness and processes such as welding and cold work. It also discusses the role of materials selection and best practices for welding.

This chapter discusses the use of coating methods and materials and their impact on corrosion and wear behaviors. It provides detailed engineering information on a wide range of processes, including organic, ceramic, and hot dip coating, metal plating and cladding, and the use of weld overlays, thermal spraying, and various deposition technologies.

This chapter describes various units and process streams that are often susceptible corrosion inhibitors in crude oil refineries, discusses the types and applications of corrosion inhibitors, and provides some information on corrosion monitoring techniques used at refineries.