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cast iron
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310331
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... Abstract Cast irons, like steels, are iron-carbon alloys but with higher carbon levels than steels to take advantage of eutectic solidification in the binary iron-carbon system. Like steel, heat treatment of cast iron includes stress relieving, annealing, normalizing, through hardening, and...
Abstract
Cast irons, like steels, are iron-carbon alloys but with higher carbon levels than steels to take advantage of eutectic solidification in the binary iron-carbon system. Like steel, heat treatment of cast iron includes stress relieving, annealing, normalizing, through hardening, and surface hardening. This chapter introduces solid-state heat treatment of iron castings, covering general considerations for heat treatment and discussing the processes, advantages, and disadvantages of heat treatment of cast iron.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310029
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... designed to prevent formation of equilibrium structures. Thus, the fact that equilibrium may not be achieved, together with the shift of the phase-field boundaries by alloying elements, place limitations on the direct use of the iron-carbon phase diagram. As noted in Chapter 1 , steels and cast irons...
Abstract
The existence of austenite and ferrite, along with carbon alloying, is fundamental in the heat treatment of steel. In view of the importance of structure and its formation to heat treatment, this chapter describes the various microstructures that form in steels, the various factors that determine the formation of microstructures during heat treatment processing of steel, and some of the characteristic properties of each of the microstructures. The discussion also covers the constitution of iron during heat treatment and the phases of heat-treated steel with elaborated information on iron phase transformation, hysteresis in heating and cooling, ferrite and austenite as two crystal structures of solid iron, and the diffusion coefficient of carbon.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310233
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... Fig. 3 Effects of alloying on gamma loops in iron. (a) Gamma loops in various binary systems of iron. (b) Effect of nickel on Fe-Cr gamma loops. Source: Ref 3 With some restrictions, stainless steels can be shaped and fabricated by conventional processes such as casting, rolling, and...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the composition and classification of stainless steels and focuses on the processes involved in heat treatment and applications of these steels. The wrought and the cast stainless steels covered are ferritic, austenitic, duplex (ferritic-austenitic), martensitic, and precipitation-hardening. In addition, information on special considerations for stainless steel castings is also provided. The heat treatment processes explained in the chapter are preheating, annealing, stress relieving, hardening, tempering, austenite conditioning, heat aging, and nitride surface hardening. Finally, some special considerations for stainless steel castings are discussed.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... steels, and alloys containing more than 2 wt% C are classified as cast irons. The solid lines represent conditions when carbon exceeds its solid solubility in ferrite and austenite, at which point carbon above the solubility combines with iron to form of cementite (Fe 3 C). The dashed lines represent the...
Abstract
The building block of all matter, including metals, is the atom. This chapter initially provides information on atomic bonding and the crystal structure of metals and alloys, followed by a description of three crystal lattice structures of metals: face-centered cubic, hexagonal close-packed, and body-centered cubic. It then describes the four main divisions of crystal defects, namely point defects, line defects, planar defects, and volume defects. The chapter provides information on grain boundaries of metals, processes involved in atomic diffusion, and key properties of a solid solution. It also explains the aspects of a phase diagram that shows what phase or phases are present in the alloy under conditions of thermal equilibrium. Finally, a discussion on the applications of equilibrium phase diagrams is presented.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.9781627083263
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310351
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... worked alloy or to relieve builtup strains in the cold-worked microstructure. Another basic type of anneal is the homogenization annealing of cast alloys, in which the as-cast microstructure is converted to a more uniform (homogenized) condition. Annealing is a common practice for all types of ferrous...
Abstract
The term heat treatable alloys is used in reference to alloys that can be hardened by heat treatment, and this chapter briefly describes the major types of heat treatable nonferrous alloys. The discussion provides a general description of annealing cold-worked metals and describes some of the common nonferrous alloys that can be hardened through heat treatment. The nonferrous alloys covered include aluminum alloys, cobalt alloys, copper alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel alloys, and titanium alloys.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310203
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
..., refine grains, reduce gaseous content, and improve homogenization of alloying elements in casting. The purpose of normalizing is to provide a more uniform ferritic-pearlitic microstructure with smaller grains and pearlite with a finer lamellae structure than in annealing. Table 1 Summary of...
Abstract
Heat treatment of steel involves a number of processes to condition the microstructure and obtain desired properties. This includes various methods namely, annealing, normalizing, and hardening by quenching and tempering. This chapter focuses on general heat treatment procedures and the applications of particular types or grades of carbon and low-alloy steels. The discussion covers carbon steel classification for heat treating, tempering of quenched carbon steels, and austempering of steel. In addition, the chapter discusses the effects of alloying and hardenability on steel and provides information on martempering of steel.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310127
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... of steel. Fig. 1 Iron-carbon binary phase diagram with areas of steel annealing temperatures above, below, and in the range of the lower critical temperature ( A 1 ). Actual annealing involves rates of heating and cooling, and critical temperatures during heating ( Ac 1 ) and cooling Sources...
Abstract
This chapter describes the general characteristics of major types of steel annealing, including the process of normalization, which is a process that refines or normalizes the microstructure of steel. The first part of the chapter begins with an overview of the three-stage process of recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. This is followed by discussions on annealing processes, namely subcritical annealing, critical-range annealing, full annealing, isothermal annealing, annealing for microstructure, and solution or quench annealing. Next, the chapter describes two undesirable reactions that occur during annealing: decarburization and scaling. Information on the gases and gas mixtures used for controlled atmospheres is then provided. The second part of the chapter focuses on the processes involved in normalizing, along with information on furnace equipment for normalizing. In addition, the chapter includes information on processes involved in induction heating of steel.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310163
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... are also used for the heating and as a quench medium for hardening steel. For low volume or hardening individual pieces, parts may be coated with borax; packed in an alloy box with dry, cast iron chips; or wrapped in 310 stainless steel foil before austenitizing. Each of these options causes some...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the processes involved in the heat treatment of steel, namely austenitizing, hardening, quenching, and tempering. It begins with an overview of austenitizing of steels by induction heating, followed by a discussion on the processes involved in transformation of the soft austenite into martensite or lower bainite in the hardening operation. The chapter provides information on various quenching systems and a description of quenching techniques, namely austempering, martempering, and patenting. Difficulties associated with hardening of steel are discussed. Further, the chapter describes the equipment used for and principal variables of tempering. It discusses the causes for various forms of embrittlement due to tempering. Information on multiple tempering, protective-atmosphere tempering, and selective tempering are also provided, along with processes involved in selection of tempering temperature. The chapter ends with a section discussing various effects, advantages, and disadvantages of precipitation hardening.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310095
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... less potent effect at high alloy levels) but improves toughness and increases corrosion resistance. Fig. 1 Hardness as a function of carbon content for various microstructures in steels. Crosshatched area shows effect of retained austenite. The hardness of iron-carbon martensite increases with...
Abstract
This chapter describes the designations of carbon and low-alloy steels and their general characteristics in terms of their response to hardening and mechanical properties. The steels covered are low-carbon steels, higher manganese carbon steels, boron-treated carbon steels, H-steels, free-machining carbon steels, low-alloy manganese steels, low-alloy molybdenum steels, low-alloy chromium-molybdenum steels, low-alloy nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels, low-alloy nickel-molybdenum steels, low-alloy chromium steels, and low-alloy silicon-manganese steels. The chapter provides information on residual elements, microalloying, grain refinement, mechanical properties, and grain size of these steels. In addition, the effects of free-machining additives are also discussed.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310079
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... martensitic hardening. Thus, undissolved carbides can actively decrease hardenability. This is especially important in high-carbon (0.50 to 1.10%) and alloy carburizing steels, which may contain excess carbides at the austenitizing temperature. Casting and hot reduction practices may also develop localized or...
Abstract
The hardenability of steel is governed almost entirely by the chemical composition (carbon and alloy content) at the austenitizing temperature and the austenite grain size at the moment of quenching. This article introduces the methods to evaluate hardenability and the factors that influence steel hardenability and selection. The discussion covers processes involved in Jominy end-quench test for evaluating hardenability. The effect of carbon on hardenability data and the effect of alloys on hardenability during quenching and on the tempering response (after hardening) are also discussed. In addition, the article provides information on the hardenability limits of H-steels after a note on hardenability correlation curves and Jominy equivalence charts.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310055
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... presence of geometric stress raisers, such as burrs, holes, sharp corners, and the like, also increases the risk of cracking. The structure of the steel prior to hardening (e.g., extruded, cast, forged, or cold formed), can affect the potential for cracking during the quench. For example, high...
Abstract
The decomposition of austenite, during controlled cooling or quenching, produces a wide variety of microstructures in response to such factors as steel composition, temperature of transformation, and cooling rate. This chapter provides a detailed discussion on the isothermal transformation and continuous cooling transformation diagrams that characterize the conditions that produce the various microstructures. It discusses the mechanism and process variables of quenching of steel, explaining the factors involved in the mechanism of quenching. In addition, the chapter provides information on the causes and characteristics of residual stresses, distortion, and quench cracking of steel.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 31 December 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.phtbp.t59310285
EISBN: 978-1-62708-326-3
... dies are used at lower hardnesses, typically approximately 40 to 60 HRC. Some examples are molds for glass and plastic parts; dies for aluminum casting; extrusion, wire drawing, and forging dies; and bending and roll forming tools. Some molds, dies, and metalforming tools come into contact with red...
Abstract
The possible classification for tool steels is their division into four groups according to their final application: hot-worked, cold-worked, plastic mold, and high-speed tool steels. This chapter mainly follows such division by application, but the grade nomenclatures used here are primarily from AISI. It presents the classification of tool steels and discusses the principles and processes of tool steel heat treating, namely normalizing, annealing, hardening, and tempering. Various factors associated with distortion in several tool steels are also covered. The chapter discusses the composition, classification, and properties of unalloyed and low-alloy cold-worked tool steels; medium and high-alloy cold-worked tool steels; and 18% nickel maraging steels.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 May 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hma.t59250013
EISBN: 978-1-62708-287-7
... basis. Iron ore was mined from the local hillside and delivered to the blast furnace by wagon or even in pouches on horseback. Output from the furnace as cast iron, or from the forge as wrought iron, had to be delivered to the outside world in the same manner. Yearly production of these iron plantations...
Abstract
This chapter is a chronological account of the development of ironmaking in colonial America from 1645 to 1870. The discussion covers the spread of ironmaking in many of the colonies in the northeast, canal building in Pennsylvania, the replacement of charcoal by anthracite coal in ironmaking, the life of ironmaking pioneer John Fritz, and the rapid increase in ironmaking for the railroads.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 May 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hma.t59250001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-287-7
... Abstract This chapter provides an account of the pre-Columbian history of metal discovery in America and then reviews the development of metallurgy in the Middle Ages from early wrought iron practices to the use of coke in iron casting. It discusses the influence of the family of Abraham Darby...
Abstract
This chapter provides an account of the pre-Columbian history of metal discovery in America and then reviews the development of metallurgy in the Middle Ages from early wrought iron practices to the use of coke in iron casting. It discusses the influence of the family of Abraham Darby in England in the development of ironmaking.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 May 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hma.t59250025
EISBN: 978-1-62708-287-7
... revolution in the last half of the 19th century. A process for making steel directly from blast-furnace cast iron was being developed at two different locations. One was at a small iron mill in Kentucky owned by two brothers by the names of William and John Kelly. It was typical for families to own and...
Abstract
This chapter focuses on the evolution of steel production from 1870 to 1900. It begins with a review of the life of the inventor of the air-boiling process, William Kelly. This is followed by a discussion on how Bessemer's air-blowing process entered the steel production industry and the development of the Kelly-Bessemer process by Alexander Holley. The chapter then discusses how Andrew Carnegie lowered the cost to produce steel, how he entered the iron and steelmaking industry, and how Captain Billy Jones joined Carnegie to expand Carnegie steel. The chapter further provides information on the great strike of 1892 at Homestead and the rapid growth in steel markets. It ends with a discussion about the factors that led Carnegie to sell his steel empire.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 May 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hma.t59250219
EISBN: 978-1-62708-287-7
... minimill industry along with the consolidation of the industry into large corporations. The chapter ends by providing information on novel processes developed for making iron. flanged beams flat products minimills railroad rails steelmaking ironmaking There was little change in the...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the rise of steel minimills in the late 1960s through the leadership of F. Kenneth Iverson and Gerald Heffernan. The discussion covers the development of processes for flat products, flanged beams, and railroad rails. The chapter also covers the growth of the minimill industry along with the consolidation of the industry into large corporations. The chapter ends by providing information on novel processes developed for making iron.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 May 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hma.t59250047
EISBN: 978-1-62708-287-7
... scientists as the Englishmen Sir Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday devoted some studies to iron and steel, but little understanding came from their work. At about the same time (1820–1830) Dietrich Ludwig Gustav Karsten established that wrought iron, steel, and cast iron differed principally in the amount of...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 May 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hma.t59250059
EISBN: 978-1-62708-287-7
... silver, and with copper and many other metals. Most mineral sources available contained combinations of metals so that alloys were the natural output of many of these ancient metalworking activities. The carbon in cast iron and steel automatically makes them alloys. Wrought iron is the only nonalloyed...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the evolution of engineering alloy steels, namely chromium, nickel, and nickel-chromium alloy steels. The discussion includes the automotive demand and development of specifications for the alloy steels. It also covers various research on heat treatment of alloy steels, providing information on hardening, transformation of austenite, hardenability testing, and tempering of as-quenched martensite.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 May 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hma.t59250153
EISBN: 978-1-62708-287-7
.... Howe joined the Columbia School of Mines in 1897 as the first professor of metallurgy. He taught the new field of metallography and wrote Metallurgical Laboratory Notes (1902) and two more major books, Iron, Steel and other Alloys (1903) and The Metallography of Steel and Cast Iron (1916). He...