This appendix contains a table listing the symbol, atomic number, atomic weight, melting temperature, density, atomic radius, and crystal structure of various elements.

Beryllium, despite its relatively simple atomic structure, possesses a wide range of useful engineering properties. It has the highest strength-to-weight ratio and modulus of elasticity among structural metals and is an important alloy addition in copper, nickel, and aluminum alloys. It also has excellent thermal properties, low atomic mass, a small x-ray absorption cross section, and a large neutron scattering cross section. This brief introductory chapter provides an overview of the unique qualities of beryllium along with typical applications and uses.

This appendix provides crystal structure and property data for alloying elements used in superalloys.

This chapter presents abbreviations and symbols used for soldering.

The ultimate goal of the failure analysis process is to find physical evidence that can identify the root cause of the failure. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has emerged as a powerful tool to characterize subtle defects. This article discusses the sample preparation procedures based on focused ion beam milling used for TEM sample preparation. It describes the principles behind commonly used imaging modes in semiconductor failure analysis and how these operation modes can be utilized to selectively maximize signal from specific beam-specimen interactions to generate useful information about the defect. Various elemental analysis techniques, namely energy dispersive spectroscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy, and energy-filtered TEM, are described using examples encountered in failure analysis. The origin of different image contrast mechanisms, their interpretation, and analytical techniques for composition analysis are discussed. The article also provides information on the use of off-axis electron holography technique in failure analysis.

This chapter provides a brief overview of phase diagrams, explaining what they represent and how and why they are used. It identifies key points, lines, and features on a binary nickel-copper phase diagram and explains what they mean from a practical perspective. It also discusses the concept of equilibrium, the significance of Gibb’s phase rule, the theorem of Le Chatelier, and the use of the lever rule.

When a metal is alloyed with another metal, either substitutional or interstitial solid solutions are usually formed. This chapter discusses the general characteristics of these solutions and the effects of several alloying elements on the yield strength of pure metals. It presents four rules that give a qualitative estimate of the ability of two metals to form substitutional solid solutions: relative size factor, chemical affinity factor, relative valency factor, and lattice type factor. The chapter provides information on alloys that form an ordered structure during heating. It describes the intermediate phases that are formed during solidification between the two extremes of substitutional solid solution on the one hand and intermetallic compound on the other. The chapter concludes with a section on strain aging in low-carbon steels that allows the interstitial atoms to diffuse to the dislocations and again form atmospheres that pin dislocation movement.

This chapter describes some of events and developments that helped drive the commercialization of beryllium and its acceptance as an engineering material. It traces the growth of the domestic beryllium industry from its origins in the 1920s to the present time, and provides a status update on the primary beryllium producers throughout the world.

In order to understand how the strength of steels is controlled, it is extremely useful to have an elementary understanding of two topics: solutions and phase diagrams. This chapter provides an introduction to these topics with suitable examples.

Steels are over 95% Fe, so a good starting point for understanding steel is to study the nature of solid iron. This chapter provides information on the composition, phase transformation, and associated changes in the crystal structure of pure iron at varying temperatures.

This chapter describes the iron-carbon phase diagram, its modification by alloying elements, and the effect of carbon on the chemistry and crystallography of austenite, ferrite, and cementite found in Fe-C alloys and steels. It also lays the groundwork for understanding important metallurgical concepts, including solubility, critical temperature, dislocation defects, slip, and diffusion, and how they affect the microstructure, properties, and behaviors of steel.

This chapter provides perspective on the physical dimensions associated with the microstructure of steel and the instruments that reveal grain size, morphology, phase distributions, crystal defects, and chemical composition, from which properties and behaviors derive. The chapter also reviews the definitions and classifications used to identify and differentiate commercial steels, including the AISI/SAE and UNS designation systems.

This chapter explains the distinction between materials and matter through the concept of microstructure. It presents the history of matter science and the establishment of metallography. The chapter provides an overview of the progress of steel technology, progress in synthetic polymers and ceramics, and establishment and development of materials science.

Steel is made by adding carbon to iron, producing a solid solution defined by its crystalline structure. This chapter discusses the effect of carbon composition and temperature on the types of structures, or phases, that form. Using detailed phase diagrams, it explains how low-carbon (hypoeutectoid) and high-carbon (hypereutectoid) steels are made, how they are classified, and how they compare. It also describes eutectoid steels which, at 0.77 wt% C, form a separate class noted for its microstructure.

This article provides an overview of the most common micro-analytical technique in the failure analysis laboratory: energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). It discusses the general characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of some of the X-ray detectors attached to the scanning electron microscope chamber including the lithium-drifted EDS detector, silicon drift detector (SDD), and wavelength dispersive X-ray detector. The article then provides information on qualitative and quantitative X-ray analysis programs followed by a discussion on EDS elemental mapping. The discussion includes a comparison of scanning transmission electron microscope-EDS elemental mapping and mapping with an SDD. A brief section is devoted to the discussion on the artifacts that occur during X-ray mapping.

This chapter is a compilation of terms and definitions related to corrosion in the petrochemical industry.