Search Results for aqueous lubricants

This chapter describes the properties and attributes of various classes of metalworking lubricants, including mineral oils; natural oils, fats, derivatives, and soaps; synthetic fluids (olefins, esters, polyglycols, ionic liquids); compounded lubricants (oils, greases, fats); aqueous lubricants (emulsions, synthetics, solutions); and a wide range of coatings and carriers. It also discusses solid-film lubricants (oxide films, polymer films, layer-lattice compounds) and environmental and safety concerns.

This chapter provides a brief review of the history of metal working processes, the use of lubricants, and the study of friction and wear. It also explains how the book is organized and describes the method of treatment used by the authors.

This chapter discusses the effect of friction and lubrication on forgings and forging operations. The discussion covers lubrication mechanisms, the use of friction laws, tooling and process parameters, and the lubrication requirements of specific materials and forging processes. The chapter also describes several test methods for evaluating lubricants and explains how to interpret associated test data.

Forging is a deformation process achieved through the application of compressive stresses. During the stroke, pressures and velocities are continuously changing and the initial lubricant supply must suffice for the duration of the operation. Lubricant residues and pickup products also change with time, further complicating the analysis of friction and wear. This chapter provides a qualitative and quantitative overview of the mechanics and tribology of forging in all of its forms. It discusses the effects of friction, pressures, forces, and temperature on the deformation and flow of metals in open-die, closed-die, and impression-die forging and in back extrusion and piercing operations. It presents various ways to achieve fluid-film lubrication in upset forging processes and examines the cause of barreling, defect formation, and folding in the upsetting of cylinders, rings, and slabs. It also explains how to evaluate lubricants, friction, and wear under hot, cold, and warm forging conditions and how to extend die life and reduce defects when processing different materials.

Drawing is a bulk deformation process that involves significant surface generation and high pressures. This chapter provides an overview of the mechanics and tribology of wire, bar, tube, and shape drawing. It presents important equations for calculating stresses, forces, friction, heat, strain, and distortion for different tooling configurations and geometries. It explains how to select and apply lubricants based on drawing speed, die design, and other factors and how to maintain sufficient film thickness for hydrodynamic, mixed, and solid-film lubrication conditions. It also discusses the use of vibrating dies, the influence of surface finish and defects, and lubrication practices for specific materials.

Cleaning procedures serve to remove scale, tarnish films, and other contaminants that form or are otherwise deposited on the surface of titanium during processing operations such as hot working and heat treatment. This chapter explains what makes titanium susceptible to the formation of scale and how it can be removed via belt grinding, abrasive blasting, and molten salt descaling baths. It also discusses the role of acid pickling, barrel finishing, polishing, and buffing as well as the use of chemical conversion coatings and protective platings.

This chapter explains how to safely prepare beryllium alloy samples for metallographic analysis. It describes grinding, polishing, and etching procedures in detail. It also discusses the identification of major and minor constituents and the general appearance of beryllium microstructure.

This appendix is a comprehensive collection of selected sources related to corrosion properties of materials and corrosion testing.

This chapter covers the mechanics and tribology of sheet metalworking processes, including shearing, bending, spinning, stretching, deep drawing, ironing, and hydroforming. It explains how to determine friction, wear, and lubrication needs based on process forces, temperatures, and strains and the effects of strain hardening on workpiece materials. It presents test methods for evaluating process tribology, describes lubrication and wear control approaches, and discusses the factors, such as surface roughness, lubricant breakdown, and adhesion, that can lead to galling and other forms of wear. It also provides best practices for selecting, evaluating, and applying lubricants for specific materials, including steels, stainless steels, and aluminum and magnesium alloys.

This chapter covers the tribological properties of different types of oil, greases, solid lubricants, and metalworking and traction fluids. It explains how lubricants are made, how they work, and how they are applied and tested. It also discusses the fundamentals of lubrication and friction control, the relationship between viscosity and breakaway friction, and the factors that affect load-carrying capacity and service life.

In contrast to most plastic deformation processes, the shape of a machined component is not uniquely defined by the tooling. Instead, it is affected by complex interactions between tool geometry, material properties, and frictional stresses and is further complicated by tool wear. This chapter covers the mechanics and tribology of metal cutting processes. It discusses the factors that influence chip formation, including tool and process geometry, cutting forces and speeds, temperature, and stress distribution. It reviews the causes and effects of tool wear and explains how to predict and extend the life of cutting tools based on the material of construction, the use of cutting fluids, and the means of lubrication. It presents various methods for evaluating workpiece materials, chip formation, wear, and surface finish in cutting processes such as turning, milling, and drilling. It also discusses the mechanics and tribology of surface grinding and other forms of abrasive machining.

Rolling is unique in that it cannot be conducted without friction. Friction draws the workpiece into the roll gap and facilitates its passage through the deformation zone. This chapter provides an overview of the mechanics and tribology of flat rolling processes and explains how various aspects of the theory apply to shape rolling as well. It derives numerous equations and models to help quantify the forces, torque, and power involved in rolling operations and the associated heating, slip, strain distribution, and deformation in both the workpiece and rolls. It describes the friction and wear that occur in hot and cold rolling under hydrodynamic and mixed-film lubrication; the influence of viscosity, film thickness, rolling speed, interface pressure, pass reduction, and lubricant breakdown; and the effect of surface finish and defects. The chapter also provides best practices for evaluating, applying, and treating lubricants for industrially important materials including iron-base, nickel-base, and aluminum alloys.

This chapter covers the different types of wear encountered in metalworking processes. It discusses the mechanisms involved in adhesive, abrasive, chemical, and fatigue wear and key contributing factors, including the composition and structure of tool and workpiece materials, the characteristics of contact surfaces, and loading forces imposed by the process. It describes the nature of metal transfer between tool and workpiece surfaces and the role of lubricants, coatings, and textures. It also discusses the use of wear maps, the effects of adhesion, and material-lubricant interactions.

This chapter is a compilation of terms and definitions related to surface engineering for corrosion and wear resistance.

This article provides details on several of the classifications of polymer wear mechanisms, using wear data and micrographs from published works. The primary goals are to present the mechanisms of polymer wear and to quantify wear in terms of wear rate. The discussion begins by providing information on the processes involved in interfacial and cohesive wear. This is followed by sections describing the wear process and applications of elastomers, thermosets, glassy thermoplastics, and semicrystalline thermoplastics. The effects of environmental and lubricant on the wear failures of polymers are then discussed. The article further includes a case study describing the tribological performance of nylon. It ends by presenting some examples of wear failures of plastics.

Stainless steel powders are usually made by water or gas atomization. This chapter describes both processes and the properties and characteristics of the powders they produce. It also discusses secondary processes, including drying, screening, annealing, and lubricating, and the effects of iron contamination on corrosion resistance.

This chapter discusses the sintering process for stainless steel powders and its influence on corrosion resistance. It begins with a review of sintering furnaces and atmospheres and the effect of temperature and density on compact properties such as conductivity, ductility, and strength. It then describes the relationship between sintered density and corrosion resistance and how it varies for different types of powders and operating environments. The chapter also explains how stainless steel powders respond to different sintering atmospheres, including hydrogen, hydrogen-nitrogen, and vacuum, and liquid-phase sintering processes.

Most integrated titanium mills have primary working equipment designed specifically for titanium. This chapter describes the forging, rolling, and extruding equipment used to produce titanium mill products and sheds light on the corresponding process, structure, property relationships.