This chapter discusses the factors that influence the load-deformation relationship at the heart of most metal forming operations. It describes the changes that occur in tensile test samples and the various ways test data can be plotted and analyzed, particularly for design purposes. It discusses the effect of normal and planar anisotropy, the development and use of flow stress curves, and how formability is usually measured and expressed. It explains how formability measurements serve as a guide for process and tool design engineers as well as others. It also discusses the development and use of forming limit curves and the extensive amount of information they provide.

This chapter discusses the alloy composition, metallurgy, mechanical behavior, stabilization, texture, anisotropy, high-temperature properties, and corrosion and oxidation resistance of ferritic stainless steels.

The various types of stainless steel have very different deformation characteristics in terms of strain hardening and anisotropy. It is important to understand and exploit these characteristics to optimize forming of stainless steels. This chapter discusses the various deformation processes involved in sheet-forming techniques, namely stretch forming and deep drawing. In addition, it provides information on some of the factors pertinent to cold-heading and hot forming of stainless long products.

Hardness tests provide valuable information about the quality of materials and how they are likely to perform in different types of service. This chapter covers some of the most widely used hardness testing methods, including Vickers, Rockwell, and Brinell tests, Shore scleroscope and Equotip hardness tests, and microindentation tests. It describes the equipment and procedures used, discusses the factors that influence accuracy, and provides hardness conversion equations for different types of materials. It also explains how hardness testing sheds light on anisotropy, machinability, wear, fracture toughness, and tensile strength as well as temperature effects, residual stress, and quality control.

This chapter provides an overview of the physical metallurgy of beryllium, discussing phases and phase transformations, physical and mechanical properties, heat treatment, and alloying. It explains how the atomic structure of beryllium, particularly its sp hybrid state, contributes to the anisotropy of elastic constants and slip properties, resulting in a specific stiffness, or modulus-to-density ratio, six times higher than that of any other structural material.

This appendix contains flow stress data (in the form of flow curves) obtained by viscous pressure bulge tests conducted on various grades of sheet steel as well as aluminum and magnesium alloys.

Titanium, like other metals, can be shaped, formed, and strengthened through deformation processes. This chapter describes the structural changes that occur in titanium during deformation and how they can be controlled. It discusses the role of slip, dislocations, and twinning, the effect of grain size and crystal orientation, the concept of texture strengthening, and the principles of strain hardening and superplasticity. It also discusses the effect of annealing and the difference between recrystallization and neocrystallization processes.

This article discusses the compositions, structures, and properties of the most common grades of soft magnetic metals and permanent magnet alloys. It explains how alloying additions and impurities affect the magnetic properties of these materials, which include commercially pure and phosphorus irons, low-carbon and silicon steels, ferritic stainless steels, and nickel-iron and iron-cobalt alloys.

This chapter provides a concise, design-oriented summary of more than 30 sheet forming processes within the categories of bending and flanging, stretch forming, deep drawing, blank preparation, and incremental and hybrid forming. Each summary includes a description and diagram of the process and a bullet-point list identifying relevant equipment, materials, variations, and applications. The chapter also discusses critical process variables, interactions, and components and the classification of sheet metal parts based on geometry.

This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the deep drawing process. It begins by explaining that different areas of the workpiece are subjected to different types of forces and loads, equating to five deformation zones. After describing the various zones, it discusses the effect of key process parameters including the draw ratio, material properties, geometry, interface conditions, equipment operating speed, and tooling. It then walks through the steps involved in predicting stress, strain, and punch force using the slab method and finite element analysis and presents the results of simulations conducted to assess the influence of blank diameter, thickness, and holding force as well as strain-hardening and strength coefficients. It also discusses the cause of defects in deep drawn rectangular cups and presents the case study of a deep drawn rectangular cup made from an aluminum blank.

With cold work, mechanical strength (measured either by yield strength or ultimate tensile strength) increases and ductility (measured by elongation, reduction of area, or fracture toughness) normally decreases. This chapter discusses the mechanisms that produce these changes and the factors that influence them. It explains how cold working increases dislocation density and how that affects the stress-strain characteristics of steel, particularly the onset of deformation. It describes the effects of deformation on ferrite, austenite, cementite, and pearlite, and how to optimize their microstructure for various applications through controlled deformation. It also provides information on subcritical annealing, the examination and control of texture, the use of optical microscopy to monitor the effects of recrystallization, and the effect of cold working on threaded fasteners, nails, and filaments used to manufacture cords.

The design and optimization of sheet metal forming operations is aided by tools and techniques that have been developed and refined over several decades. This chapter covers many of these methods and practices and explains where and how they are used. It begins by showing how the stress state at any point in a material can be expressed in different ways for different purposes. It then compares and contrasts some of the more widely used yield criteria and demonstrates the use of flow rules. It also explains how to calculate power, energy, and effective strain and strain rate and how hardening laws are used to predict strain-hardening behaviors.

This chapter begins with a review of the mechanics of bending and the primary elements of a bending system. It examines stress-strain distributions defined by elementary bending theory and explains how to predict stress, strain, bending moment, and springback under various bending conditions. It describes the basic principles of air bending, stretch bending, and U- and V-die bending as well as rotary, roll, and wipe die bending, also known as straight flanging. It also discusses the steps involved in contour (stretch or shrink) flanging, hole flanging, and hemming and describes the design and operation of press brakes and other bending machines.

This chapter discusses the compositions, properties, and applications of nonferrous metals, including zirconium, hafnium, beryllium, lead, tin, gold, silver, and platinum group metals. It also addresses fusible alloys and provides melting temperatures for several compositions.

Inclusions and chemical segregation are factors in many process-induced failures involving steel parts. Inclusions are nonmetallic compounds introduced during production; segregation is a type of chemical partitioning that occurs during solidification. This chapter discusses the origins of segregation and inclusions and their effect on the mechanical properties and microstructure of steel. It explains how to identify various types of inclusions and characteristic segregation patterns, such as banding. It also describes the effect of hot work processing on solidification structure and the chemical variations produced by interdendritic segregation.

This chapter discusses the forming characteristics of dual-phase (DP) and transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels. It begins with a review of the mechanical behavior of advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) and how they respond to stress-strain conditions associated with deformation processes such as stretching, bending, flanging, deep drawing, and blanking. It then describes the complex tribology of AHSS forming operations, the role of lubrication, the effect of tool steels and coatings, and the force and energy requirements of various forming presses. It also discusses the cause of springback and explains how to predict and compensating for its effects.

This chapter is a study of the microstructure of case-hardened steels. It explains what can be learned by examining grain size, microcracking, nonmetallic inclusions, and the effects of microsegregation. It identifies information-rich features, describing their ideal characteristics, the likely cause of variations observed, and their effect on mechanical properties and behaviors. The discussions throughout the chapter are aided by the use of images, diagrams, data plots, and tables.

This chapter explains that the key to forging is understanding and controlling metal flow and influential factors such as tool geometry, the mechanics of interface friction, material characteristics, and thermal conditions in the deformation zone. It also reviews common forging processes, including closed-die forging, extrusion, electrical upsetting, radial forging, hobbing, isothermal forging, open-die forging, orbital forging, and coining.

This chapter provides a thorough review of the crystal structure of beryllium and its elastic, thermal, and nuclear properties. It also includes information on electrical and optical properties and an extensive amount of data in the form of tables and plots.