This chapter describes the basics of energy and entropy and “free energy.” Fundamentals of internal energy U , the enthalpy H , entropy S , free energies G , and F of a substance are presented. The chapter also presents the thermal vibration model to promote a better understanding of the U , S , and F of the crystal. It covers basic concepts of thermodynamics of magnetic transition and discusses the role and the meaning of magnetic transition in iron and steel. The chapter concludes with a general discussion on an amorphous phase from a thermodynamic viewpoint.

Beryllium is an important additive in the production of amorphous metal alloys, achieving low density and high strength. It also plays a role in amorphous alloys that can be slowly cooled and still retain their amorphous structure. This chapter provides information on the development of amorphous alloys that contain beryllium and the applications for which they are suited.

This chapter is a compilation of beryllium phase diagrams, representing more than 25 binary alloy systems from beryllium-aluminum to beryllium-zirconium. Each diagram is presented along with a summary and source reference.

This article reviews fatigue test methodologies, provides an overview of general fatigue behavior (crack initiation and propagation) in engineering plastics, and discusses some of the factors affecting the fatigue performance of polymers. In addition, it provides information on fractography that provides useful insight into the nature of fracture processes.

Amorphous alloys, because of their lack of crystallographic slip planes, are assumed to be insensitive to the selective corrosion attack that causes stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) in crystalline alloys. However, under certain conditions, melt-spun amorphous alloys have proven vulnerable to SCC due to hydrogen embrittlement. This chapter presents findings from several studies on this phenomenon, describing test conditions as well as cracking and fracture behaviors. It also discusses the effect of deformation on corrosion behavior, particularly for alloys without strongly passivating elements.

This chapter considers various behaviors of microstructural interfaces from a thermodynamics viewpoint. It discusses energy of surface and interface, the Gibbs-Thomson Effect, grain-boundary segregation, smooth and rough interfaces, and grain growth.

This chapter discusses the use of thermoset and thermoplastic resins in polymer matrix composites. It begins by explaining how the two classes of polymer differ and how it impacts their use as matrix materials. It then goes on to describe the characteristics of polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, bismaleimide, cyanate ester, polyimide, and phenolic resins and various toughening methods. The chapter also covers thermoplastic matrix materials and product forms and provides an introduction to the physiochemical tests used to characterize resins and cured laminates.

This chapter discusses the composition, properties, and uses of crystalline ceramics, glasses, clay, and concrete mixes. It also discusses the carbon structure of diamond, graphite, fullerenes, and nanotubes.

The ultimate goal of the failure analysis process is to find physical evidence that can identify the root cause of the failure. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has emerged as a powerful tool to characterize subtle defects. This article discusses the sample preparation procedures based on focused ion beam milling used for TEM sample preparation. It describes the principles behind commonly used imaging modes in semiconductor failure analysis and how these operation modes can be utilized to selectively maximize signal from specific beam-specimen interactions to generate useful information about the defect. Various elemental analysis techniques, namely energy dispersive spectroscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy, and energy-filtered TEM, are described using examples encountered in failure analysis. The origin of different image contrast mechanisms, their interpretation, and analytical techniques for composition analysis are discussed. The article also provides information on the use of off-axis electron holography technique in failure analysis.

This chapter covers the fatigue and fracture behaviors of ceramics and polymers. It discusses the benefits of transformation toughening, the use of ceramic-matrix composites, fracture mechanisms, and the relationship between fatigue and subcritical crack growth. In regard to polymers, it covers general characteristics, viscoelastic properties, and static strength. It also discusses fatigue life, impact strength, fracture toughness, and stress-rupture behaviors as well as environmental effects such as plasticization, solvation, swelling, stress cracking, degradation, and surface embrittlement.

This article describes in more detail the fundamental building-block level, atomic, then expands to a discussion of molecular considerations, intermolecular structures, and finally supermolecular issues. An explanation of important thermal, mechanical, and physical properties of engineering plastics and commodity plastics follows, and the final section briefly outlines the most common plastics manufacturing processes.

This chapter presents an overview of families of brazing alloys that one is likely to encounter in a manufacturing environment. It discusses the metallurgical aspects of brazing and includes a survey of brazing alloy systems. A discussion of deleterious and beneficial impurities is provided with examples. The chapter also describes the application of phase diagrams to brazing.

This chapter provides a view of magnetism in materials used at low temperatures. The discussion covers the concepts, definitions, and systems of units that are unique to the study of magnetic properties. The chapter provides a description of some of the techniques and devices used for determining magnetic properties.

In an attempt to explain the stresses encountered in the plastics industry, this article first defines the different types of internal stresses in amorphous polymers. Each type of thermal stress is then discussed in detail, with reference to the mechanism of generation and the effect on engineering properties. Methods of detecting and measuring internal stresses are also presented. The article then describes the combined effects of thermal stresses and orientation that result from processing conditions. Finally, it discusses numerous aspects of physical aging and the use of high-modulus graphite fibers in amorphous polymers.

Phases are distinct states of aggregation of matter and one of the primary leverage points for understanding and applying materials. This chapter discusses the phase nature of metals and alloys, the concept of solid solutions, and the use of phase diagrams. It also describes some of the metallurgical effects of freezing or solidification, including the segregation of solutes and the formation of metal glasses.

Generally, binders consist of at least three ingredients: a backbone to provide strength (compounds such as polyethylene, polypropylene, ethylene vinyl acetate, and polystyrene); a filler, such as polyacetal and paraffin wax, to occupy space between particles; and additives, such as stearates, stearic acid, or magnesium stearate, as well as phosphates and sulfonates, to adjust viscosity, lubricate tooling, disperse particles, or induce binder wetting of the powder. In the case of binders deposited via ink jet printing, the binder contains solvents to lower the viscosity for easier jetting. The chapter provides a detailed description of these constituents. The requirements of a binder as well as the factors determining the physical and thermal properties of polymers are discussed. Then, two factors associated with solvation of polymers, namely solubility parameter and wetting, are covered. The chapter ends with information on the specification of polymers used in binders.

The building block of all matter, including metals, is the atom. This chapter initially provides information on atomic bonding and the crystal structure of metals and alloys, followed by a description of three crystal lattice structures of metals: face-centered cubic, hexagonal close-packed, and body-centered cubic. It then describes the four main divisions of crystal defects, namely point defects, line defects, planar defects, and volume defects. The chapter provides information on grain boundaries of metals, processes involved in atomic diffusion, and key properties of a solid solution. It also explains the aspects of a phase diagram that shows what phase or phases are present in the alloy under conditions of thermal equilibrium. Finally, a discussion on the applications of equilibrium phase diagrams is presented.

This chapter introduces many of the key concepts on which metallurgy is based. It begins with an overview of the atomic nature of matter and the forces that link atoms together in crystal lattice structures. It discusses the types of imperfections (or defects) that occur in the crystal structure of metals and their role in mechanical deformation, annealing, precipitation, and diffusion. It describes the concept of solid solutions and the effect of temperature on solubility and phase transformations. The chapter also discusses the formation of solidification structures, the use of equilibrium phase diagrams, the role of enthalpy and Gibb’s free energy in chemical reactions, and a method for determining phase compositions along the solidus and liquidus lines.