This data set presents aging response curves for a wide range of aluminum casting alloys. The aging response curves are of two types: room-temperature, or "natural," curves and artificial, or "high-temperature," curves. The curves in each group are presented in the numeric sequence of the casting alloy designation. The curves included are the results of measurements on individual lots considered representative of the respective alloys and tempers. The properties considered are yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, elongation, and Brinell hardness.

This data set contains approximately 50 growth curves for a wide range of aluminum casting alloys at various temperatures. Growth curves are used to determine the dimensional changes that must be anticipated during service in applications where close dimensional tolerances are required. Hardness curves are provided for many of the alloys. The hardness values are from corresponding aging response studies in which measurements were made on individual lots considered representative of the respective alloys and tempers.

This chapter introduces the concepts of mechanical properties and the various underlying metallurgical mechanisms that can be used to alter the strength of materials. The mechanical properties discussed include elasticity, plasticity, creep deformation, fatigue, toughness, and hardness. The strengthening mechanisms covered are solid-solution strengthening, cold working, and dispersion strengthening. The effect of grain size on the yield strength of a material is also discussed.

This chapter presents an overview of heat treating of nonferrous alloys. First, a brief discussion on the effects of cold work and annealing on nonferrous alloys is presented. This is followed by a discussion on the mechanisms involved in the more commonly used heat treating procedures for hardening or strengthening, namely solution treating and aging. Examples are presented for heat treating of two commercially important nonferrous alloys, one from the aluminum-copper system and one from the copper-beryllium system.

Titanium alloys respond well to heat treatment be it to increase strength (age hardening), reduce residual stresses, or minimize tradeoffs in ductility, machinability, and dimensional and structural stability (annealing). This chapter describes the phase transformations associated with these processes, explaining how and why they occur and how they are typically controlled. It makes extensive use of phase diagrams and cooling curves to illustrate the effects of alloying and quenching on beta-to-alpha transformations and the conditions that produce metastable phases. It also examines several time-temperature-transformation diagrams, which account for the effect of cooling rate.

The tensile test provides a relatively easy, inexpensive technique for developing mechanical property data for the selection, qualification, and utilization of metals and alloys in engineering service. The tensile test requires interpretation, and interpretation requires a knowledge of the factors that influence the test results. This chapter provides a metallurgical perspective for such interpretation. The topics covered include elastic behavior, anelasticity, damping, proportional limit, yield point, ultimate strength, toughness, ductility, strain hardening, and yielding and the onset of plasticity. The chapter describes the effects of grain size on yielding, effect of cold work on hardness and strength, and effects of temperature and strain-rate on the properties of metals and alloys. It provides information on true stress-strain relationships and special tests developed to measure the effects of test/specimen conditions. Finally, the chapter covers the characterization of tensile fractures of ductile metals and alloys.

Steels with martensitic and tempered martensitic microstructures, though sometimes perceived as brittle, exhibit plasticity and ductile fracture behavior under certain conditions. This chapter describes the alloying and tempering conditions that produce a ductile form of martensite in low-carbon steels. It also discusses the effect of tempering temperature on the mechanical behavior and deformation properties of medium-carbon steels.

The metallurgy of aluminum and its alloys offers a range of opportunities for employing heat treatments to obtain desirable combinations of mechanical and physical properties such that castings meet defined temper requirements. This chapter discusses the processes involved in solution heat treatment, quenching, precipitation hardening, and annealing of aluminum alloys. The effects of these processes on dimensional stability and residual stresses are also discussed. Troubleshooting and diagnosis of heat treating problems are covered in the concluding section of the chapter.

This chapter discusses the stress-strain response of ferritic microstructures and its influence on tensile deformation, strain hardening, and ductile fracture of carbon steels. It describes the ductile-to-brittle transition that occurs in bcc ferrite, the effects of aging and grain size on strength and toughness, continuous and discontinuous yielding behaviors, and dispersion and solid-solution strengthening processes.

This chapter describes the mechanical properties of fully pearlitic microstructures and their suitability for wire and rail applications. It begins by describing the ever-increasing demands placed on rail steels and the manufacturing methods that have been developed in response. It then explains how wire drawing, patenting, and the Stelmor process affect microstructure, and describes various fracture mechanisms and how they appear on steel wire fracture surfaces. The chapter concludes by discussing the effects of torsional deformation, delamination, galvanizing, and aging on patented and drawn wires.

This chapter first examines the tempering behavior of plain carbon steels and then that of alloy steels. Next, some correlations are examined which allow estimations of the tempered hardness from the chemical compositions, tempering temperature and tempering time. The chapter then describes the effect of tempering on the mechanical properties of plain carbon steels and the microstructure of plain carbon steels. It shows examples of the structure of plain carbon steels. Additionally, the chapter explains the stages and kinetics of tempering in alloy steels and plain carbon steels. It also describes some methods of estimating the hardness. Finally, the chapter discusses the important problem of temper embrittlement.

This chapter compares and contrasts the high-temperature behaviors of metals and composites. It describes the use of creep curves and stress-rupture testing along with the underlying mechanisms in creep deformation and elevated-temperature fracture. It also discusses creep-life prediction and related design methods and some of the factors involved in high-temperature fatigue, including creep-fatigue interaction and thermomechanical damage.

This article focuses on characterization techniques used for analyzing the physical behavior and chemical composition of thermoset resins, namely chromatography and infrared spectroscopy. The main purpose is to give sufficient detail to permit the reader understand a particular test technique and its value to the thermoset resin field. Epoxy resins are emphasized in the examples because they dominate the airframe and aerospace industries. The article also provides information on two categories of characterization of the processing behavior of thermoset. The first studies the thermal properties of reactive thermoset systems, while the second utilizes these thermal characteristics as the basis for monitoring and control during processing.

This chapter discusses the effect of heat treating on titanium alloys and the influence of time and temperature on critical properties and behaviors. It explains how heat treatments are used to make titanium stronger, tougher, more ductile, and easier to machine as well as more resistant to the effects of corrosion and thermal and mechanical fatigue. It describes accepted practices for stress relieving, aging, annealing, and post-treatment processing along with associated challenges and concerns.

This chapter provides an overview of the alloy and temper designations adopted for aluminum cast and wrought products. It explains the naming system and how to identify the main alloying elements and basic strengthening mechanism from any given alloy and temper designation. The chapter provides additional detail on the strengthening and softening mechanisms that allow aluminum alloys to attain a range of engineering properties. The strength of aluminum alloys can be controlled by three methods: solid-solution hardening by alloying, work hardening by plastic deformation, and precipitation hardening with appropriate alloying and heat treatment.

Precipitation hardening is used extensively to strengthen aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel-base superalloys, beryllium-copper alloys, and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. This chapter discusses two types of particle strengthening: precipitation hardening, which takes place during heat treatment; and true dispersion hardening, which can be achieved by mechanical alloying and powder metallurgy consolidation. It provides information on the three steps of precipitation hardening of aluminum alloys: solution heat treating, rapid quenching, and aging.

This chapter describes the metallurgy, composition, and properties of steels and other alloys. It provides information on the atomic structure of metals, the nature of alloy phases, and the mechanisms involved in phase transformations, including time-temperature effects and the role of diffusion, nucleation, and growth. It also discusses alloying, heat treating, and defect formation and briefly covers condenser tube materials.

This chapter provides information and data on the fatigue and fracture properties of steel, aluminum, and titanium alloys. It explains how microstructure, grain size, inclusions, and other factors affect the fracture toughness and fatigue life of these materials and the extent to which they can be optimized. It also discusses the effect of metalworking and heat treatment, the influence of loading and operating conditions, and factors such as corrosion damage that can accelerate crack growth rates.

This chapter addresses the cumulative effects of fatigue and how to determine its impact on component lifetime and performance. It begins by defining a loading history and its corresponding hysteresis loops that exposes the deficiencies of some of the theories discussed. It then proceeds to demonstrate the methods commonly used to analyze cumulative fatigue damage and its effect on component life starting with the classical linear damage rule. After pointing out the inherent limitations of the model, it presents a method that incorporates two linear damage rules, one applying prior to crack initiation and the other after the crack has started. Although the method accounts somewhat better for loading-order effects, the transition in behavior that the rules presume to model occurs prior to any signs of cracking. Two modified versions of the double linear damage rule method, neither of which are related to a physical crack initiation event, are subsequently presented along with several applications showing how the different methods compare. The examples provided include two-level and multilevel tests, a gas-turbine engine compressor disk, and the cumulative damage associated with the irreversible hardening of type 304 stainless steel.