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X-ray powder diffraction
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240631
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
...-Scherrer powder method uses an x-ray beam of constant wavelength and a specimen consisting of thousands of tiny crystals. Since there are a large number of powder particles with many different orientations, the diffracted beam produces a cone of radiation. Different reflection cones are recorded on a film...
Abstract
This appendix explains how to identify crystallographic planes and directions. It shows how Miller indices, a system for specifying crystallographic planes within a unit cell, are determined for cubic and hexagonal systems. It also explains how x-ray diffraction techniques are used in the study of crystalline structures.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.fibtca.t52430107
EISBN: 978-1-62708-253-2
... Abstract This chapter describes some of the most effective tools for investigating boiler tube failures, including scanning electron microscopy, optical emission spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, and x-ray photoelectron...
Abstract
This chapter describes some of the most effective tools for investigating boiler tube failures, including scanning electron microscopy, optical emission spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. It explains how the tools work and what they reveal. It also covers the topic of image analysis and its application in the measurement of grain size, phase/volume fraction, delta ferrite and retained austenite, inclusion rating, depth of carburization/decarburization, scale thickness, pearlite banding, microhardness, and hardness profiles. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion on the effect of scaling and deposition and how to measure it.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2016
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hpcspa.t54460121
EISBN: 978-1-62708-285-3
... No. Characterization technique Key aspect for cold-sprayed coating 1 Optical microscopy Coating thickness, coating porosity, substrate-coating interface integrity, coating porosity after heat treatment 2 X-ray diffraction Feedstock powder phase evolution, as-sprayed and heat treated coating phase...
Abstract
This chapter elucidates the indispensable role of characterization in the development of cold-sprayed coatings and illustrates some of the common processes used during coatings development. Emphasis is placed on the advanced microstructural characterization techniques that are used in high-pressure cold spray coating characterization, including residual-stress characterization. The chapter includes some preliminary screening of tool hardness and bond adhesion strength, as well as a distinction between surface and bulk characterization techniques and their importance for cold spray coatings. The techniques covered are optical microscopy, X-Ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, focused ion beam machining, electron probe microanalysis, transmission electron microscopy, and electron backscattered diffraction. The techniques also include electron channeling contrast imaging, X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, Auger electron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, oxygen analysis, and nanoindentation.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.9781627082518
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mgppis.t60400149
EISBN: 978-1-62708-258-7
... on the surface of a specimen can be analyzed for the compounds present. As an example of the use of a diffractometer, the oxidation product on a heavily scaled steel part was analyzed by x-ray diffraction. The oxide was scraped from the surface of the part, ground into a fine powder, and glued to a glass slide...
Abstract
Several specialized instruments are available for the metallographer to use as tools to gather key information on the characteristics of the microstructure being analyzed. These include microscopes that use electrons as a source of illumination instead of light and x-ray diffraction equipment. This chapter describes how these instruments can be used to gather important information about a microstructure. The instruments covered include image analyzers, transmission electron microscopes, scanning electron microscopes, electron probe microanalyzers, scanning transmission electron microscopes, x-ray diffractometers, microhardness testers, and hot microhardness testers. A list of other instruments that are usually located in a research laboratory or specialized testing laboratory is also provided.
Image
Published: 01 June 2016
Fig. 5.4 (a) X-ray diffractograms comparing IN625 (nickel-base superalloy) powders and cold-sprayed IN625 coating reveal broadening of the diffraction peaks in the coating, indicative of macroscopic strain. (b) Hall-Williamson plot taken from the peak broadening data to calculate the extent
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Image
Published: 01 June 2016
Fig. 5.6 X-ray diffraction patterns comparing (a) warm-sprayed and (b) cold-sprayed titanium coating, along with the respective starting powders, indicate the presence of TiO oxides along with the metal in the warm-sprayed coating. Williamson-Hall plots for the (c) warm-sprayed and (d) cold
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 May 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.hma.t59250047
EISBN: 978-1-62708-287-7
... Abstract This chapter covers the early studies and various discoveries by metals researchers to study the internal structure of metals. The topics covered include light microscopy, phase diagrams, X-ray diffraction, principles of precipitation hardening, and dislocation theory...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 April 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.imub.t53720139
EISBN: 978-1-62708-305-8
... sensitivity of ~0.005% and a precision for quantitative analysis of ~0.2% relative, or 0.005% absolute, whichever is greater. For powders, the sample size is several grams pressed into a pellet. Powder samples are typically attached to substrates not produced by x-ray or are pressed into pellets. For bulk...
Abstract
The overall chemical composition of metals and alloys is most commonly determined by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and optical emission spectroscopy (OES). High-temperature combustion and inert gas fusion methods are typically used to analyze dissolved gases (oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen) and, in some cases, carbon and sulfur in metals. This chapter discusses the operating principles of XRF, OES, combustion and inert gas fusion analysis, surface analysis, and scanning auger microprobe analysis. The details of equipment set-up used for chemical composition analysis as well as the capabilities of related techniques of these methods are also covered.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pdub.t53420239
EISBN: 978-1-62708-310-2
... diagrams. These include thermal analysis (TA), metallography, X-ray diffraction (XRD), dilatometry, electrical resistance measurement, and magnetic analysis methods, among others. All of these methods are based on the principle that when a phase transition in an alloy occurs, its physical and chemical...
Abstract
This chapter discusses some of the methods and measurements used to construct phase diagrams. It explains how cooling curves were widely used to determine phase boundaries, and how equilibrated alloys examined under controlled heating and cooling provide information for constructing isothermal and vertical sections as well as liquid projections. It also explains how diffusion couples provide a window into local equilibria and identifies typical phase diagram construction errors along with problems stemming from phase-boundary curvatures and congruent transformations.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.fibtca.t52430343
EISBN: 978-1-62708-253-2
... Amount by wt.% Oxygen 15.79 Aluminum 0.76 Silicon 0.75 Chromium 1.38 Iron 79.13 Nickel 0.19 For the purpose of phase identification, the scale sample was subjected to x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis using a powder x-ray diffractometer, and the results of analysis...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.cfap.t69780343
EISBN: 978-1-62708-281-5
..., for example, Cu k-alpha at 1.542 Å. Crystal diffraction follows Bragg’s law: n λ = 2 d sine θ where n is a constant (usually 1), λ is the wavelength of the x-ray, d is the interplanar spacing of the crystalline material, and sine θ is the experimental diffraction angle. A powder...
Abstract
This article introduces procedures an engineer or materials scientist can use to investigate failures. It provides a brief survey of polymer systems and key properties that need to be measured during failure analysis. The article begins with an overview of the problem-solving approach pertinent to structure analysis. This is followed by a review of the characterization of plastics by infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The article then provides information on the distribution of molecular weight of an engineering plastic. It further discusses the methods used in thermal analysis, namely differential thermal analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, thermal-mechanical analysis, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The following sections provide details on X-ray diffraction for analyzing crystalline phases and on a minimal scheme for polymer analysis and characterization to assist the design engineer. The article ends with a discussion on the thermal-analytical scheme for analyzing the milligram quantities of polymer samples.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.faesmch.t51270019
EISBN: 978-1-62708-301-0
... successfully applied to detect flaws in metals, ceramics, composites, and microelectronic components. X-ray Diffraction X-ray diffraction is a common method for identifying phases in metallic materials, corrosion products, and surface deposits. Several cases of component failures due to locked...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the basic steps of a failure investigation. It explains that the first step is to gather and document information about the failed component and its operating history. It advises investigators to visit the failure site as soon as possible to record damages and collect test specimens for subsequent examination and chemical analysis. It also discusses the role of mechanical property testing, the use of nondestructive evaluation, and the final step of generating a report.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mgppis.t60400245
EISBN: 978-1-62708-258-7
... at the root. It may be a metal backing ring or strip; a pass of weld metal; or a nonmetal such as carbon, granular ux, or a protective gas. backing lm. A lm used as auxiliary support for the thin replica or specimen-supporting lm. back re ection. The diffraction of x-rays at a Bragg angle approaching 90...
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pdub.t53420363
EISBN: 978-1-62708-310-2
... is used mostly for determining the structure of single crystals. The Debye-Scherrer powder method uses an x-ray beam of constant wavelength and a specimen consisting of thousands of tiny crystals. Because there are a large number of powder particles with many different orientations, the diffracted beam...
Abstract
This appendix provides a detailed overview of the crystal structure of metals. It describes primary bonding mechanisms, space lattices and crystal systems, unit cell parameters, slip systems, and crystallographic planes and directions as well as plastic deformation mechanisms, crystalline imperfections, and the formation of surface or planar defects. It also discusses the use of X-ray diffraction for determining crystal structure.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mgppis.9781627082587
EISBN: 978-1-62708-258-7
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2003
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.cfap.t69780383
EISBN: 978-1-62708-281-5
... Abstract This article covers common techniques for surface characterization, including the modern scanning electron microscopy and methods for the chemical characterization of surfaces by Auger electron spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and time-of-flight secondary ion mass...
Abstract
This article covers common techniques for surface characterization, including the modern scanning electron microscopy and methods for the chemical characterization of surfaces by Auger electron spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry. The principles of surface analysis and some of the applications of the technique in polymer failure studies are also provided.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.cub.t66910475
EISBN: 978-1-62708-250-1
... microscope). Limited to crystalline solids C.9 X-ray diffraction Scattering of x-rays transmitted through or reflected from a solid sample Quantitative crystalline phase analysis As C.8. Detection limit 1−5%. Accuracy between ±1 and ±10% of detected level. Sample may be in powder form so ideal...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the techniques applicable to the diagnosis of corrosion failures, including visual and microscopic examination of corroded surfaces and microstructure; chemical analysis of the metal, corrosion products, and bulk environment; nondestructive evaluation methods; corrosion testing techniques; and mechanical testing techniques. A guide to investigative techniques used in corrosion failure analysis is provided in a table, describing the advantages and limitations of each technique. The principal stages of the investigation and analysis of corrosion failures discussed in the chapter are: collection of background information and sampling; preliminary laboratory examination; detailed metallographic and fractographic examinations; chemical analysis of corrosion products and bulk materials; corrosion testing for quality control; mechanical testing for quality control; and analysis of results and report writing.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2007
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.htcma.t52080067
EISBN: 978-1-62708-304-1
... 36 X-ray diffraction analysis of the oxide scales formed on alloys 230, 617, and X was performed with the results summarized in Table 4.5 . The results showed that NiO and NiCr 2 O 4 along with Cr 2 O 3 oxides made up the external oxide scales for alloy 230, and NiO and Cr 2 O 3 made up...
Abstract
Oxidation usually dominates high-temperature corrosion reactions, but under certain conditions, some alloys may be affected by nitridation as well. This chapter explains why nitridation occurs and how it attacks various metals, in some cases, penetrating deeper than oxidation. It provides images and data describing the nitridation process and its effects on metals and alloys in high-temperature air as well as NH3-H2O, NH3 and H2-N2-NH3, and N2 environments. It also includes test data showing that nitridation is more severe in a nitrogen atmosphere than an ammonia environment at 1090 °C (2000 °F).
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.fibtca.9781627082532
EISBN: 978-1-62708-253-2
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