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Book Chapter
Metallic Structure
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240003
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
... originated as a verb meaning to seek, search after, or inquire about. Today, a metal is defined as any element that tends to lose electrons from the outer shells of its atoms. The resulting positive ions are held together in crystalline structure by the cloud of these free electrons in what is known...
Abstract
Bonding in solids may be classified as either primary or secondary bonding. Methods of primary bonding include the metallic, ionic, and covalent bonds. This chapter discusses and provides a comparison of the properties of these bonds. This is followed by a discussion on crystalline structure, providing information on space lattices and crystal systems, hexagonal close-packed systems, and face-centered and body-centered cubic systems. The chapter then covers slip systems and closes with a brief section on allotropic transformations that occur at a constant temperature during either heating or cooling.
Book Chapter
Investment Casting
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.stg2.t61280079
EISBN: 978-1-62708-267-9
... and explains how to avoid them. casting applications investment casting superalloys Introduction What Is Investment Casting? In investment casting, a ceramic slurry is applied around a disposable pattern, usually wax, and allowed to harden to form a disposable casting mold (shell...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the application of investment casting to nickel- and cobalt-base superalloys. It describes the production of polycrystalline and single crystal castings, the materials normally used, and the part dimensions and tolerances typically achieved. It explains how patterns, molds, and shells are produced, discusses the practice of directional solidification, and examines an assortment of turbine components cast from nickel- and cobalt-base alloys. The chapter also addresses casting problems such as inclusions, porosity, distortion, core shift, and leaching and explains how to avoid them.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ex2.t69980141
EISBN: 978-1-62708-342-3
... with a primary precipitated solid phase. The α grains are then surrounded by a shell of the β phase. In the peritectic concentration point a peritectoid structure forms that appears similar in micrographs to the eutectoid. The development of the equilibrium state on further cooling is very restricted and can...
Abstract
This chapter explains the basic terminology and principles of metallurgy as they apply to extrusion. It begins with an overview of crystal structure in metals and alloys, including crystal defects and orientation. This is followed by sections discussing the development of the continuous cast microstructure of aluminum and copper alloys. The discussion provides information on billet and grain segregation and defects in continuous casting. The chapter then discusses the processes involved in the deformation of pure metals and alloys at room temperature. Next, it describes the characteristics of pure metals and alloys at higher temperatures. The processes involved in extrusion are then covered. The chapter provides details on how the toughness and fracture characteristics of metals and alloys affect the extrusion process. The weld seams in hollow profiles, the production of composite profiles, and the processing of composite materials, as well as the extrusion of metal powders, are discussed. The chapter ends with a discussion on the factors that define the extrudability of metallic materials and how these attributes are characterized.
Book Chapter
Review of Metallic Structure
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2012
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.pdub.t53420363
EISBN: 978-1-62708-310-2
..., a symmetrical ion is produced when a valence electron is removed from the metal atom. As a result of this ion symmetry, metals tend to form highly symmetrical, close-packed crystal structures. They also have a large number of nearest-neighboring atoms (usually 8 to 12), which helps to explain their high...
Abstract
This appendix provides a detailed overview of the crystal structure of metals. It describes primary bonding mechanisms, space lattices and crystal systems, unit cell parameters, slip systems, and crystallographic planes and directions as well as plastic deformation mechanisms, crystalline imperfections, and the formation of surface or planar defects. It also discusses the use of X-ray diffraction for determining crystal structure.
Book Chapter
Chemistry Basics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ems.t53730001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-283-9
.... Oxygen atoms are shared by two tetrahedra as sketched in Fig. 1.11 . Fig. 1.11 Structure of a silicate glass consists of tetrahedra with silicon atoms in the centers and oxygen atoms on the corners. Source: Ref 1.2 Exercises Forming hexagonal close packed and face-centered cubic...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the foundational principles of materials science. It begins with a review of the periodic table and the fundamental particles, including atoms, ions, and molecules, that constitute matter. It also reviews the types of bonds that form between atoms and the relative levels of force they produce. It describes the difference between crystalline and noncrystalline or amorphous materials and discusses common crystal structures, including face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic, hexagonal close packed, and diamond cubic. It also describes the structure of sodium chloride and includes a list of structurally similar compounds.
Book Chapter
Overview of Casting Processes
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aceg.t68410029
EISBN: 978-1-62708-280-8
... of clay and water added to the sand for bonding the sand particles. The sand molds are compacted into matching top and bottom flasks (or mold boxes) using a mulled mixture of silica sand, clay (bentonite), and water. The top (cope) and bottom (drag) molds are formed using wood, plastic, or aluminum...
Abstract
This chapter discusses the advantages, limitations, and applications of various aluminum casting processes, namely green sand casting process, air set or no-bake molding process, vacuum molding process, evaporative foam casting process, and die casting process. The processes covered also include gravity permanent molding, low-pressure permanent molding, counter pressure, squeeze casting, investment casting, rapid prototype casting, cast forge hybrid, and semisolid metal processes.
Book Chapter
The Influence and Control of Porosity and Inclusions in Aluminum Castings
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2004
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aacppa.t51140047
EISBN: 978-1-62708-335-5
... and the contraction that takes place after solidification as a result of solid-state contraction that most concerns die design and patternmaking. A sphere of molten metal solidifying without risering is an easily understood example of the diverse ways in which shrinkage forms. Once the shell of the sphere has...
Abstract
Porosity in aluminum is caused by the precipitation of hydrogen from liquid solution or by shrinkage during solidification, and more usually by a combination of these effects. Nonmetallic inclusions entrained before solidification influence porosity formation and mechanical properties. This chapter describes the causes and control of porosity and inclusions in aluminum castings as well as the combined effects of hydrogen, shrinkage, and inclusions on the properties of aluminum alloys. In addition, it discusses the applications of radiography to reveal internal discontinuities in aluminum.
Book Chapter
Structure of Metals and Alloys
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 October 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.mnm2.t53060013
EISBN: 978-1-62708-261-7
... of valence electrons that an atom has strongly determines how it interacts with adjacent atoms to form the bonds that exist in solids. And as atoms bond to create a solid crystalline structure, the chemical and physical properties of that material are determined to a large extent by the type of bonding...
Abstract
This chapter introduces many of the key concepts on which metallurgy is based. It begins with an overview of the atomic nature of matter and the forces that link atoms together in crystal lattice structures. It discusses the types of imperfections (or defects) that occur in the crystal structure of metals and their role in mechanical deformation, annealing, precipitation, and diffusion. It describes the concept of solid solutions and the effect of temperature on solubility and phase transformations. The chapter also discusses the formation of solidification structures, the use of equilibrium phase diagrams, the role of enthalpy and Gibb’s free energy in chemical reactions, and a method for determining phase compositions along the solidus and liquidus lines.
Book Chapter
Stress-Assisted Corrosion and Cracking
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2007
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.htcma.t52080379
EISBN: 978-1-62708-304-1
... on the waterwall tubes of supercritical coal-fired boilers fired under low NOx combustion conditions, conducive to the production of sulfidizing environments. In the other case, stress contributes to brittle fracture in the form of intergranular cracking. The phenomenon, which is known by various names, typically...
Abstract
This chapter discusses two damage mechanisms in which stress plays a major role. In the one case, stress causes cracks in the oxide scale on metals, leading to preferential corrosion attack. An example from industry of this type of failure is the circumferential cracking that occurs on the waterwall tubes of supercritical coal-fired boilers fired under low NOx combustion conditions, conducive to the production of sulfidizing environments. In the other case, stress contributes to brittle fracture in the form of intergranular cracking. The phenomenon, which is known by various names, typically occurs at the lower end of the intermediate temperature range and has been observed in ferritic steels, stainless steels, Fe-Ni-Cr alloys, and nickel-base alloys, as described in the chapter.
Book Chapter
Introduction to Steel Castings
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.sch6.t68200001
EISBN: 978-1-62708-354-6
... are also required for both cores and molds produced by the shell process. Wax Patterns Wax patterns are used in the investment, or lost wax, molding process. These processes use dies to form the patterns. The wax patterns are coated with a ceramic slurry to form a shell. The wax is then removed...
Abstract
This chapter defines steel castings, explains when to use steel castings, gives an overview of casting processes, and gives examples of suitable applications for cast steel parts.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ex2.9781627083423
EISBN: 978-1-62708-342-3
Book Chapter
Solidification and Casting
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2008
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.emea.t52240095
EISBN: 978-1-62708-251-8
... that helps in preventing thermal fatigue failures. An extension of the DS process was the development of the single-crystal process in which a single crystal grows to form the entire blade. To develop a DS structure, it is necessary for the dendrites (grains) to grow from one end of the casting...
Abstract
Almost all metals and alloys are produced from liquids by solidification. For both castings and wrought products, the solidification process has a major influence on both the microstructure and mechanical properties of the final product. This chapter discusses the three zones that a metal cast into a mold can have: a chill zone, a zone containing columnar grains, and a center-equiaxed grain zone. Since the way in which alloys partition on freezing, it follows that all castings are segregated to different categories. The different types of segregation discussed include normal, gravity, micro, and inverse. The chapter also provides information on grain refinement and secondary dendrite arm spacing and porosity and shrinkage in castings. It concludes with a brief overview of six of the most important casting processes in industries: sand casting, plaster mold casting, evaporative pattern casting, investment casting, permanent mold casting, and die casting.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ex2.t69980059
EISBN: 978-1-62708-342-3
... process until the preset discard length is reached. A shell that adheres to the container wall is formed between the dummy block and the container wall. At the end of the extrusion process the stem is withdrawn. The container is then opened far enough to allow the section to be sawn and a discard tool...
Abstract
This chapter opens with a discussion of the classification of rod and tube extrusion processes. The standard processes involve hot working (extrusion at temperatures above room temperature), but some specialized cold working processes are also used for rod and tube extrusion. The next section reviews principles, variations, thermal conditions, axial load calculation, material flow, and applications of direct extrusion and indirect extrusion, with examples provided for extrusion of aluminum and copper alloys. Next, the chapter focuses on the process principles, advantages, and applications of conventional hydrostatic extrusion and thick film processes. This is followed by sections providing information on the special extrusion processes, namely conform process and cable sheathing. The chapter ends with a discussion on direct and indirect tube extrusion.
Series: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aceg.9781627082808
EISBN: 978-1-62708-280-8
Book Chapter
Toughening Methods for Thermoset-Matrix Composites
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 2010
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.omfrc.t53030177
EISBN: 978-1-62708-349-2
... used to toughen fiber-reinforced composites are core-shell particles with a shell that is compatible and may also be reactive with the matrix, and a cross-linked rubber or thermoplastic core that does not dissolve. The size of the core-shell particles is usually smaller than the phases formed from RLP...
Abstract
The second-generation composite materials were added to increase the strain to failure of the primary phase and/or create a dispersed second phase, thereby enhancing the fracture toughness of the thermosetting matrix. These matrices offered novel design capabilities for composites in a variety of aircraft applications. To improve the damage tolerance of composite materials even further, an engineering approach to toughening was used to modify the highly stressed interlayer with either a tougher material or through the use of preformed particles, leading to the third generation of composite materials. This chapter discusses the development, processes, application, advantages, and disadvantages of dispersed-phase toughening of thermoset matrices. Information on the processes of particle interlayer toughening of composite materials is also included.
Book Chapter
Integral Design for Filament Winding—Materials, Winding Patterns, and Roving Dimensions for Optimal Pressure Vessels
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 September 2011
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.cfw.t52860019
EISBN: 978-1-62708-338-6
... if the shell thickness, as resulting from the winding process, is at least equal to the thickness distribution demanded by Eq 3.24 for every Y belonging to the interval [1, Y ]. Obviously, at the equator, the “structural” thickness is the same or a bit less than the “winding” thickness; this has formed...
Abstract
This chapter outlines a methodology for the design of cylindrical pressure vessels, with emphasis on the establishment of winding patterns and the interaction between the real fiber bed geometry (finite roving dimensions) and the theoretical one. To highlight the materials-shape/pattern-roving interaction, an outline of the basic principles of pressure vessel design is provided. After a short section on laminate thickness approximation techniques (essential for establishing a range of acceptable roving dimensions), the chapter concludes with an example demonstrating the methodology from an initial set of design parameters up to the final stage, including patterns, roving dimensions, and production time minimization.
Book Chapter
The Production of Extruded Semifinished Products from Metallic Materials
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2006
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.ex2.t69980195
EISBN: 978-1-62708-342-3
... to improve the mechanical properties is practically impossible for wrought magnesium alloys because of their limited cold workability associated with their hexagonal lattice structure. Drawing in the form of a calibration draw is, however, of interest, as a means of improving tolerances. Extrusion...
Abstract
Compared with other deformation processes used to produce semifinished products, the hot-working extrusion process has the advantage of applying pure compressive forces in all three force directions, enhancing workability. The available variations in the extrusion process enable a wide spectrum of materials to be extruded. This chapter focuses on the processes involved in the extrusion of semifinished products in various metals and their alloys, namely tin, lead, lead-base soft solders, tin-base soft solders, zinc, magnesium, aluminum, copper, titanium, zirconium, iron, nickel, and powder metals. It discusses their properties and applications as well as suitable equipment for extrusion. It further discusses the processes involved in the extrusion of semifinished products in exotic alloys and extrusion of semifinished products from metallic composite materials.
Book Chapter
Glossary of Foundry Terms
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.sch6.t68200437
EISBN: 978-1-62708-354-6
... sand into a box-like heated structure so that a shell of controlled thickness is created. Datum Plane . . . In layout and machining operations, the reference plane from which dimensions are measured in the perpendicular direction. Datum Points . . . In layout and machining operations, the reference...
Abstract
This chapter presents a glossary of foundry terms.
Book Chapter
Forging Processes: Variables and Descriptions
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 February 2005
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.chffa.t51040007
EISBN: 978-1-62708-300-3
..., aluminum alloys, titanium alloys. Process Variations. Tube sinking, tube ex- panding. Applications. Forging of open ends of am- munition shells; forging of gas pressure contain- ers. 2.3.14 Coining (Fig. 2.14) Definition. In sheet metal working, coining is used to form indentations and raised sections...
Abstract
This chapter explains that the key to forging is understanding and controlling metal flow and influential factors such as tool geometry, the mechanics of interface friction, material characteristics, and thermal conditions in the deformation zone. It also reviews common forging processes, including closed-die forging, extrusion, electrical upsetting, radial forging, hobbing, isothermal forging, open-die forging, orbital forging, and coining.
Book Chapter
Billet Casting Principles and Practice
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Technical Books
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 March 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.aet.t68260119
EISBN: 978-1-62708-336-2
... of grain refiners ( Ref 11 ). The addition of rare earth elements is proposed as a method to improve grain refiner efficiency ( Ref 12 ). Fig. 8 Different grain structure formed in billet casting A typical example of a photomacrograph of transverse cross sections of the ten 7016 alloy billets...
Abstract
This chapter describes various aspects of the billet making process and how they affect the quality of aluminum extrusions. It begins with an overview of the direct-chill continuous casting technique and its advantages over other methods, particularly for hard aluminum alloys. It then discusses the influence of casting variables, including pouring temperature and cooling rate, and operating considerations such as the make-up of charge materials, fluxing and degassing procedures, and grain refining. The chapter also provides information on vertical and horizontal casting systems, billet homogenization, and the cause of casting defects, including cracking and splitting, segregation, porosity, and grain growth.
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