This chapter provides conversion factors for common engineering units.

This data sheet includes a select list of factors for converting customary English units to metric (SI) units.

This appendix defines common SI units and standard prefixes.

This appendix is a list of abbreviations for common SI units.

This chapter contains tables providing reference information on physical constants, unit symbols, SI prefixes, the Greek alphabet, and the unit conversion table.

This appendix is intended as a guide for expressing weights and measures in the base, supplementary, and derived Systeme International d'Unites.

The commercial relevance of cast irons is best understood in the context of the iron-carbon phase diagram, where their composition places them near the eutectic point, which sheds light on why they melt at lower temperatures than steel and why they can be cast into more intricate shapes. This chapter examines these unique properties and how they are derived. It begins by describing the basic metallurgy of cast iron, focusing on the eutectic reaction. It explains how to control the reaction and thus properties of cast iron by overcooling and inoculation. The chapter also discusses composition, microstructure, heat treatments, and the classification and casting characteristics of white, gray, ductile, malleable, compacted graphite, and special cast irons.

This chapter discusses the history of hardness testing and defines the term hardness. It describes the interrelationship between material structure and hardness and the relationships between hardness and other mechanical material properties. In addition, information on the hardness unit and traceability of the hardness measurement are provided.

A generating system in a hydroelectric power plant was shut down to investigate an abnormal sound coming from one of the turbines. A piece of metal that had broken off one of the vanes on the runner was found in the tail race and was subsequently examined along with the runner. Based on the fracture characteristics, as described in the report, the vane failed in fatigue due to a crack that initiated in an area of stress concentration.

Beryllium is the 44th most abundant element on Earth, with an estimated concentration of six parts per million in the Earth’s crust. It is found in various forms in more than 100 minerals, two of which, beryl and bertrandite, account for most of the beryllium produced throughout the world. This chapter describes where and how beryllium is obtained and provides facts, figures, and insights on global supply and demand.

This article presents methods that enable one to consistently, uniformly and quickly remove substrate silicon from units without imparting damage to the structure of interest. It provides examples of electron beam probing and backside nano-probing techniques. The electron beam probing techniques are E-beam Logic State Imaging, Electron-beam Signal Image Mapping, and E-beam Device Perturbation. Backside nano-probing techniques discussed include: Electron Beam Absorbed Current, Electron Beam Induced Resistance Change, four terminal resistance measurements, resistive gate defect identification, and circuit editing. The article also presents methods to prepare electron beam probing samples where some remaining silicon is required for the transistor functions and transmission electron microscope samples from units where the substrate silicon has been partially or completely removed.

This chapter provides a view of magnetism in materials used at low temperatures. The discussion covers the concepts, definitions, and systems of units that are unique to the study of magnetic properties. The chapter provides a description of some of the techniques and devices used for determining magnetic properties.

This chapter discusses material-related problems associated with coal-fired burners. It explains how high temperatures affect heat-absorbing surfaces in furnace combustion areas and in the convection pass of superheaters and reheaters. It describes how low-NOx combustion technology, intended to reduce NOx emissions, accelerates tube wall wastage. It also covers circumferential cracking in furnace waterwalls, thermal fatigue cracking induced by waterlances and water cannons, superheater-reheater corrosion, and erosion in fluidized-bed boilers.

This chapter explains what some of the terms used in physical metallurgy are intended to mean and how these meanings affect the manner in which the subject is treated throughout the book.

This chapter discusses the composition, properties, microstructure, grain formation, and fracture behavior of gray, white, ductile, and malleable cast iron and how these critical factors are affected when iron is heated to different temperatures prior to or during solidification.

This appendix provides information on organizations that issue specifications and standards related to titanium and its alloys.

This chapter describes the basics of energy and entropy and “free energy.” Fundamentals of internal energy U , the enthalpy H , entropy S , free energies G , and F of a substance are presented. The chapter also presents the thermal vibration model to promote a better understanding of the U , S , and F of the crystal. It covers basic concepts of thermodynamics of magnetic transition and discusses the role and the meaning of magnetic transition in iron and steel. The chapter concludes with a general discussion on an amorphous phase from a thermodynamic viewpoint.

This chapter reviews the fundamentals of classical nucleation theory, with application examples. The discussion covers the basic subjects of nucleation, spontaneous nucleation in solution, nucleation by inoculation, and nucleation in solids.