Leaks can occur as the result of several failure causes. This chapter reviews the causes, features, and impact of various types of leaks, namely gasket leaks, O-ring leaks, bond-joint leaks, weld leaks, polyvinyl chloride leaks, valve leaks, and structural leaks.

This chapter discusses the growing use of sintered stainless steels in automotive applications and various types of filters and filtering media. It also describes how these materials are produced in the form of metal foams and cellular structures and how they serve as flake pigments in corrosion-resistant coatings.

This chapter presents the criteria, methods, and benefits of cast-weld construction.

This chapter describes issues related to corrosion of carbon steel weldments and remedial measures that have proven successful in specific cases. The forms of corrosion covered includes preferential heat affected zone corrosion, preferential weld metal corrosion, and galvanic corrosion. Industrial case studies demonstrating the necessity for testing each galvanic couple in the environment for which it is intended are presented. The chapter also discusses various factors associated with stress-corrosion cracking in oil refineries.

This chapter concerns itself with the tribology of ceramics, cermets, and cemented carbides. It begins by describing the composition and friction and wear behaviors of aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and zirconia. It then compares and contrasts the microstructure, properties, and relative merits of cermets with those of cemented carbides.

This chapter discusses various factors that affect corrosion of stainless steel weldments. It begins by providing an overview of the metallurgical factors associated with welding. This is followed by a discussion on preferential attack associated with weld metal precipitates in austenitic stainless steels as well as several forms of corrosion associated with welding. The effects of gas-tungsten arc weld shielding gas composition and heat-tint oxides on corrosion resistance are then covered. Microbiological corrosion of butt welds in water tanks is also illustrated. In addition, the chapter provides information on corrosion of ferritic and duplex stainless steel weldments.

Carbon and low-alloy steels are the most frequently welded metallic materials, and much of the welding metallurgy research has focused on this class of materials. Key metallurgical factors of interest include an understanding of the solidification of welds, microstructure of the weld and heat-affected zone (HAZ), solid-state phase transformations during welding, control of toughness in the HAZ, the effects of preheating and postweld heat treatment, and weld discontinuities. This chapter provides information on the classification of steels and the welding characteristics of each class. It describes the issues related to corrosion of carbon steel weldments and remedial measures that have proven successful in specific cases. The major forms of environmentally assisted cracking affecting weldment corrosion are covered. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the effects of welding practice on weldment corrosion.

This article reviews the fundamental and specific factors that control the properties of steel weldments in both the weld metal and heat-affected zone (HAZ). The influence of welding processes, welding consumables, and welding parameters on the weldment properties is emphasized. The service properties of weldments in corrosive environments are considered and subjected to cyclic loading. The article summarizes the effects of major alloying elements in carbon and low-alloy steels on HAZ microstructure and toughness. It discusses the processes involved in controlling toughness in the HAZ and the selection of the proper filler metal. The article provides a comparison between single-pass and multipass welding and describes the effect of welding procedures on weldment properties and the effects of residual stresses on the service behavior of welded structures. It also describes the fatigue strength and fracture toughness of welded structures. The article reviews various types of corrosion of weldments.

Austenitic stainless steels exhibit a single-phase, face-centered cubic structure that is maintained over a wide range of temperatures. This chapter provides a basic understanding of grade designations, properties, and welding considerations of austenitic stainless steels. It also discusses general types of corrosive attack and their effects on service integrity as well as detection and control measures. The five corrosive attack mechanisms covered are intergranular corrosion, preferential attack associated with weld metal precipitates, pitting and crevice corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, and microbiologically influenced corrosion.

This chapter discusses the various factors pertinent to gravity permanent mold (GPM) castings, along with their advantages, limitations, and significance. The discussion covers the geometric factors, process and manufacturing elements, gating practices, and feeding principles of and pouring systems in GPM. The influences of mold coatings on GPM and low pressure permanent mold castings are described. The chapter also discusses various processes involved in the engineering of core boxes and cooling of GPM for casting integrity and cycle time control. It provides information on some of the processes involved in post-casting operations, namely de-coring and de-gating. The key design aspects for consideration in water quenching during the T6 heat treatment are reviewed. The chapter also provides information on two critical cycle events important in engineering at the manufacturing facility: tipper cycle planning and table or cell cycle planning.

This chapter discusses the various failure analysis techniques for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), focusing on conventional semiconductor manufacturing processes and materials. The discussion begins with a section describing the advances in integration and packaging technologies that have helped drive the further proliferation of MEMS devices in the marketplace. It then shows some examples of the top MEMS applications and quickly discusses the fundamentals of their workings. The next section describes common failure mechanisms along with techniques and challenges in identifying them. The chapter also provides information on the testing of MEMS devices. It covers the two common challenges in sample preparation for MEMS: decapping, or opening up the package, without disturbing the MEMS elements; and removing MEMS elements for analysis. Finally, the chapter discusses the aspects of failure analysis techniques that are of particular interest to MEMS.

This chapter covers the friction and wear behaviors of plastics and elastomers. It begins by describing the molecular differences between the two types of polymers and their typical uses. It then discusses the important attributes of engineering plastics and their suitability for applications involving friction, erosion, and adhesive and abrasive wear. It also discusses the tribology of elastomers and rubber along with their basic differences and the conditions under which they produce Schallamach waves. It includes information on polymer composites as well.

Moore's Law has driven many degree circuit features below the resolving capability of optical microscopy. Yet the optical microscope remains a valuable tool in failure analysis. This article describes the physics governing resolution and useful techniques for extracting the small details. It begins with the basic microscope column and construction. The article discusses microscope adjustments, brightfield and darkfield illumination, and microscope concepts important to liquid crystal techniques. It also discusses solid immersion lenses, infrared and ultraviolet microscopy and concludes with laser microscopy techniques such as thermal induced voltage alteration and external induced voltage alteration.

This chapter discusses the application of high-pressure cold spray to the automotive industry field, with special attention to three applications: additive manufacturing, fabrication methods, and protective coatings. Various studies on the automotive application of cold spray are reviewed. The background and purpose of each application are presented and practical cases are discussed.

This chapter discusses the effects of corrosion on boiler tube surfaces exposed to water and steam. It describes the process of corrosion, the formation of scale, and the oxides of iron from which it forms. It addresses the primary types of corrosion found in boiler environments, including general corrosion, under-deposit corrosion, microbially induced corrosion, flow-accelerated corrosion, stress-assisted corrosion, erosion-corrosion, cavitation, oxygen pitting, stress-corrosion cracking, and caustic embrittlement. The discussion is supported by several illustrations and relevant case studies.

This chapter discusses the melting and conversion of superalloys and the solidification challenges they present. Superalloys have high solute content which can lead to untreatable defects if they solidify too slowly. These defects, called freckles, are highly detrimental to fatigue life. The chapter explains how and why freckles form as well as how they can be prevented. It describes the criteria for selecting the proper melting method for specific alloys based on melt segregation and chemistry requirements. It compares standard processes, including electric arc furnace/argon oxygen decarburization melting, vacuum induction melting, vacuum arc remelting, and electroslag remelting. It also addresses related issues such as consumable remelt quality, control anomalies, melt pool characteristics, and melt-related defects, and includes a section that discusses the processes involved in converting cast ingots into mill products.

Specific heat is a fundamental property that relates the total heat per unit mass added to a system to the resultant temperature change of the system. This chapter begins with the definition and historical development of specific heat. Thermodynamic and solid state relationships are presented which include discussions about lattice specific heat and the effects of magnetic and superconducting transitions. Data sources for practical applications and methods of estimating specific heat for materials are also included. The chapter concludes with a section concerning the measurement of specific heat at low temperatures.

Corrosion testing and monitoring are powerful tools in the fight to control corrosion. This chapter provides a general overview of three major categories of corrosion tests, namely laboratory tests, pilot-plant tests, and field tests. It begins with brief sections describing the purposes of corrosion tests, the logical steps in a test program, and the preparation and cleaning of test specimens. The focus then moves on to discuss the types and applications of these test categories and the associated evaluation procedures. Excluding electrochemical tests which are addressed separately in this chapter, the other laboratory tests covered under this category are simulated atmosphere tests, salt-spray tests, and immersion tests. Only corrosion testing in the atmosphere is discussed in the section on field tests. Corrosion monitoring techniques are finally considered, covering the characteristics of corrosion monitoring techniques, the factors to be considered in selecting a corrosion-monitoring method, and the strategies in corrosion monitoring.

The vast majority of beryllium products are manufactured from blocks, forms, or billets of compacted powder that are machined or worked into shape. This chapter describes the metalworking processes used, including rolling, forming, forging, extrusion, drawing, and spinning. It covers the qualitative and quantitative aspects of each process and provides examples showing how they are implemented and the results that can be achieved. The chapter also discusses the issue of beryllium’s low formability and describes some of the advancements that have been made in near-net shape processing.

This chapter discusses the process, principles, and modeling of the diffusion brazing system. The applications of diffusion brazing to wide-gap joining and layer manufacturing are also discussed.