This appendix provides a list of books and technical papers utilized as reference material during the development of this book.

This appendix identifies producers, suppliers, and service providers experienced with superalloy materials and applications. It also identifies potential sources of engineering information and property data.

In embedded systems, the separation between system level, board level, and individual component level failure analysis is slowly disappearing. In order to localize the initial defect area, prepare the sample for root cause analysis, and image the exact root cause, the overall functionality has to be maintained during the process. This leads to the requirement of adding additional techniques that help isolate and image defects that are buried deeply within the board structure. This article demonstrates an approach of advanced board level failure analysis by using several non-destructive localization techniques. The techniques considered for advanced fault isolation are magnetic current imaging for shorts and opens; infrared thermography for electrical shorts; time-domain-reflectometry for shorts and opens; scanning acoustic microscopy; and 2D/3D X-Ray microscopy. The individual methods and their operational principles are introduced along with case studies that will show the value of using them on board level defect analysis.

Magnesium, by volume, is two-thirds the weight of aluminum and one-quarter the weight of steel. It also has good damping capacity, giving it an edge over other metals in high-vibration environments. This chapter discusses the basic metallurgy, alloy designations, compositions, and mechanical properties of cast and wrought magnesium alloys. It also describes the processes used to produce magnesium parts, the causes and effects of corrosion, and the use of protective coatings and treatments.

This chapter describes the effect of temperature and strain rate on the mechanical properties and forming characteristics of aluminum and magnesium sheet materials. It discusses the key differences between isothermal and nonisothermal warm forming processes, the factors that affect heat transfer, die heating techniques, and press systems. It also discusses the effect of forming temperature, punch velocity, blank size, and other parameters on deep drawing processes, making use of both experimental and simulated data.

Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM) has an increasing important role in the development of nanoscale semiconductor technologies. This article presents a detailed discussion on various SPM techniques including Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy, Scanning Capacitance Microscopy, Scanning Spreading Resistance Microscopy, Conductive-AFM, Magnetic Force Microscopy, Scanning Surface Photo Voltage Microscopy, and Scanning Microwave Impedance Microscopy. An overview of each SPM technique is given along with examples of how each is used in the development of novel technologies, the monitoring of manufacturing processes, and the failure analysis of nanoscale semiconductor devices.

Circuit edit has been instrumental to the development of focused ion beam (FIB) systems. FIB tools for advanced circuit edit play a major role in the validation of design and manufacture. This chapter begins with an overview of value, role, and unique capabilities of FIB circuit edit tools for first silicon debug. The etching capabilities of circuit edit FIB tools are then discussed, providing information on chemistry assisted etching in silicon oxides and low-k dielectrics. The chapter also discusses the requirements and procedures involved in edit operation: high aspect ratio milling, endpointing, and cutting copper. It then provides an introduction to FIB metal/conductor deposition and FIB dielectric deposition. Edit design rules that can facilitate prototype production from first silicon are also provided. The chapter concludes with a discussion on future trends in circuit edit technology.

Magnesium occupies the highest anodic position on the galvanic series and can be subject to severe corrosion. The corrosion problem is due to the impurity elements iron, nickel, and copper. However, the use of higher-purity magnesium alloys has led to corrosion resistance approaching that of some of the competing aluminum casting alloys. This chapter begins with a general overview of magnesium metallurgy and alloy designations and moves on to discuss in detail the nominal compositions, mechanical properties, heat treatment, fabrication, and corrosion protection of magnesium casting alloys and wrought magnesium alloys. It also discusses the nominal compositions, properties, and applications of commercially pure zinc, zinc casting alloys, and wrought zinc alloys.

An architectural shift to buried power rails (BPRs) with backside power delivery (BPD) is on the horizon as CMOS technology approaches the 2 nm node. The obstruction created by the presence of BPD networks obsoletes many of the electrical fault isolation (EFI) techniques that have been used for the past few decades and severely degrades the performance of others. This chapter provides an overview of EFI methods that are still applicable to ICs with BPD networks, including e-beam and atomic force probing, x-ray and magnetic field imaging, and lock-in thermography. It assesses the technical challenges of each method as well as the potential for improvement.

Magnetic field imaging (MFI), generally understood as mapping the magnetic field of a region or object of interest using magnetic sensors, has been used for fault isolation (FI) in microelectronic circuit failure analysis for almost two decades. Developments in 3D magnetic field analysis have proven the validity of using MFI for 3D FI and 3D current mapping. This article briefly discusses the fundamentals of the technique, paying special attention to critical capabilities like sensitivity and resolution, limitations of the standard technique, sensor requirements and, in particular, the solution to the 3D problem, along with examples of its application to real failures in devices.

This article examines the composition and properties of magnesium and its alloys. It discusses alloy and temper designations, applications and product forms, and commercial alloy systems, and explains how alloying elements affect physical and mechanical properties, processing characteristics, and corrosion behaviors.

Corrosive environments can be broadly classified as atmospheric, underground/soil, water, acidic, alkaline, and combinations of these. Complicating matters is the fact that there are important variables, for example, pH, temperature, and the presence of biological organisms, that can significantly alter the response of the material in a given environment. This chapter provides a detailed account of all these types of corrosion affecting various industries, pointing out the connection between the characteristics of the corrosive environment that control corrosion behavior, the corrosion characteristics of various metals and materials systems, and the subsequent corrosion response.

In the Semiconductor I/C industry, it has been well documented that the proportion of factory and customer field returns attributed to device damage resulting from electrical over-stress (EOS) and electro-static discharge (ESD) can amount to 40 to 50%. This study entailed EOS and ESD simulation using a variety of models, namely the Human Body Model (HBM), the Charged Device Model (CDM) and the so-called Machine Model (MM), and then conducting electrical and physical failure analysis and comparing the results with documented analyses performed on customer field returns and factory failures. It is shown that a distinction can be made between EOS and ESD failures and between the characteristic failure signatures produced by the ESD models. The CDM physical failure location is at the input buffer and in the gate oxide, where as both HBM and MM failures occur mostly in the contacts at the input protection structures.

Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) in magnesium alloys was first reported in the 1930s and, within ten years, became the focus of intense study. This chapter provides a summary of all known work published since then on the nature of SCC in magnesium alloys and how it is related to composition, microstructure, and heat treatment. It describes the types of environments where magnesium alloys are most susceptible to SCC and the effect of contributing factors such as temperature, strain rate, and applied and residual stresses. The chapter also discusses crack morphology and what it reveals, provides information on proposed cracking mechanisms, and presents a practical approach for preventing SCC.

Aluminum products are used extensively in natural atmospheres and in and around water. They are also widely used in building materials and as containers for chemicals and food and beverage products. This chapter discusses the corrosion mechanisms associated with these environments and the influence of various factors and prevention methods. It also includes an extensive amount of data of corrosion rates, corrosion resistance, and changes in mechanical properties.

This chapter assesses the potential impact of neural networks on package-level failure analysis, the challenges presented by next-generation semiconductor packages, and the measures that can be taken to maximize FA equipment uptime and throughput. It presents examples showing how neural networks have been trained to detect and classify PCB defects, improve signal-to-noise ratios in SEM images, recognize wafer failure patterns, and predict failure modes. It explains how new packaging strategies, particularly stacking and disintegration, complicate fault isolation and evaluates the ability of various imaging methods to locate defects in die stacks. It also presents best practices for sample preparation, inspection, and navigation and offers suggestions for improving the reliability and service life of tools.

The ultimate goal of the failure analysis process is to find physical evidence that can identify the root cause of the failure. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has emerged as a powerful tool to characterize subtle defects. This article discusses the sample preparation procedures based on focused ion beam milling used for TEM sample preparation. It describes the principles behind commonly used imaging modes in semiconductor failure analysis and how these operation modes can be utilized to selectively maximize signal from specific beam-specimen interactions to generate useful information about the defect. Various elemental analysis techniques, namely energy dispersive spectroscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy, and energy-filtered TEM, are described using examples encountered in failure analysis. The origin of different image contrast mechanisms, their interpretation, and analytical techniques for composition analysis are discussed. The article also provides information on the use of off-axis electron holography technique in failure analysis.

There are numerous approximate methods, both analytical and numerical, for analyzing forging processes. None are perfect because of the assumptions made to simplify the mathematical approach, but all have merit. This chapter discusses the slab, upperbound, and finite element methods, covering basic principles, implementation, and advantages and disadvantages in various applications.