This chapter describes three approaches for 3D hot-spot localization of thermally active defects by lock-in thermography (LIT). In the first section, phase-shift analysis for analyzing stacked die packages is performed. The second example employs defocusing sequences for the localization of resistive electrical shorts in 3D architectures, and the third operates in cross sectional LIT mode to investigate defects in the insulation liner of Through Silicon Vias. All three approaches allow for a precise localization of thermally active defects in all three spatial dimensions to guide subsequent high-resolution physical analyses.

In embedded systems, the separation between system level, board level, and individual component level failure analysis is slowly disappearing. In order to localize the initial defect area, prepare the sample for root cause analysis, and image the exact root cause, the overall functionality has to be maintained during the process. This leads to the requirement of adding additional techniques that help isolate and image defects that are buried deeply within the board structure. This article demonstrates an approach of advanced board level failure analysis by using several non-destructive localization techniques. The techniques considered for advanced fault isolation are magnetic current imaging for shorts and opens; infrared thermography for electrical shorts; time-domain-reflectometry for shorts and opens; scanning acoustic microscopy; and 2D/3D X-Ray microscopy. The individual methods and their operational principles are introduced along with case studies that will show the value of using them on board level defect analysis.

This chapter is a brief account of various factors pertinent to the development of an engineering component. The discussion covers the disciplines and interactions of design development, engineering of component design, validation of design and process analysis, and matrix of design and manufacturing elements.

X-ray imaging systems have long played a critical role in failure analysis laboratories. This article begins by listing several favorable traits that make X-rays uniquely well suited for non-destructive evaluation and testing. It then provides information on X-ray equipment and X-ray microscopy and its application in failure analysis of integrated circuit (IC) packaging and IC boards. The final section is devoted to the discussion on nanoscale 3D X-ray microscopy and its applications.

Since the introduction of chip scale packages (CSPs) in the early 90s, they have continuously increased their market share due to their advantages of small form factor, cost effectiveness and PCB optimization. The reduced package size brings challenges in performing failure analysis. This article provides an overview of CSPs and their classification as well as their advantages and applications, and reveals some of the challenges in performing failure analysis on CSPs, particularly for CSPs in special package configurations such as stacked die multi-chip-packages (MCPs) and wafer level CSPs (WLCSPs). The discussion covers special requirements of CSPs such as precision decapsulation for fine ball grid array packages, accessing the failing die for MCP packages, and careful handling for WLCSP. Solutions and best practices are shared on how to overcome these challenges. The article also presents a few case studies to demonstrate how failure analysis work on CSPs can be successfully completed.

This appendix provides practical information on induction coils and how they are made. It discusses soldering methods, preferred materials, design challenges, and best practices and procedures. It also discusses the design, construction, and application of magnetic flux concentrators and the growing use of computer simulation.

This chapter discusses the use of electron microscopy in metallographic analysis. It explains how electrons interact with metals and how these interactions can be harnessed to produce two- and three-dimensional images of metal surfaces and generate crystallographic and compositional data as well. It discusses the basic design and operating principles of scanning electron microscopes, transmission electron microscopes, and scanning transmission electron microscopes and how they are typically used. It describes the additional information contained in backscattered electrons and emitted x-rays and the methods used to access it, namely wavelength and energy dispersive spectroscopy and electron backscattering diffraction techniques. It also describes the role of focused ion beam milling in sample preparation and provides information on atom probes, atomic force microscopes, and laser scanning microscopes.

This chapter describes several macroscopic examination techniques, including macroetching, contact printing, fracturing, and lead exudation. It explains how each method is implemented, why it is used, and what it reveals about manufacturing processes, defects, imperfections, and failure mechanisms.

Root cause of failure in automotive electronics cannot be explained by the failure signatures of failed devices. Deeper investigations in these cases reveals that a superimposition of impact factors, which can never be represented by usual qualification testing, caused the failure. This article highlights some of the most frequent early life failure types in automotive applications. It describes some of the critical things to be considered while handling packages and printed circuit board layout. The article also provides information on failure anamnesis that shows how to use history, failure signatures, environmental conditions, regional failure occurrences, user profile issues, and more in the failure analysis process to improve root cause findings.

Photon emission (PE) is one of the major optical techniques for contactless isolation of functional faults in integrated circuits (ICs) in full electrical operation. This article describes the fundamental mechanisms of PE in silicon based ICs. It presents the opportunities of contactless characterization for the most important electronic device, the MOS - Field Effect Transistor, the heart of ICs and their basic digital element, the CMOS inverter. The article discusses the specification and selection of detectors for proper PE applications. The main topics are image resolution, sensitivity, and spectral range of the detectors. The article also discusses the value and application of spectral information in the PE signal. It describes state of the art IC technologies. Finally, the article discusses the applications of PE in ICs and also I/O devices, integrated bipolar transistors in BiCMOS technologies, and parasitic bipolar effects like latch up.

Hot stamping is a forming process for ultrahigh-strength steels (UHSS) that maximizes formability while minimizing springback. This chapter covers several aspects of hot stamping, including the methods used, the effect of process variables, and the role of finite-element analysis in process development and die design. It also discusses heating methods, cooling mechanisms, and the role of coatings in preventing oxidation.

The casting engineer contributes to a successful component design by offering expertise in molding, core making, and material characteristics and by recommending the most suitable casting process to use to meet quality and cost targets. The casting engineer's responsibilities include recommending locator positioning; advising about lugs, hooks, or holes for casting handling through all processes; determining the choice of a parting plane and pouring orientation; designing cores for accurate positioning, suitable venting, and proper cleaning; guiding decisions about wall thicknesses and junctions; making suggestions about casting design to eliminate distortion; optimizing the gating design for slag-free metal; and establishing the feeding techniques to eliminate shrink porosity. This chapter provides the guidelines for these responsibilities. In addition, the guidelines for the use of chaplets and chills in cast iron castings; guidelines for drafts, machine stock, tolerances, and contraction or shrink rule; and guidelines for pattern layouts and nesting are also covered.

This chapter discusses the various factors pertinent to gravity permanent mold (GPM) castings, along with their advantages, limitations, and significance. The discussion covers the geometric factors, process and manufacturing elements, gating practices, and feeding principles of and pouring systems in GPM. The influences of mold coatings on GPM and low pressure permanent mold castings are described. The chapter also discusses various processes involved in the engineering of core boxes and cooling of GPM for casting integrity and cycle time control. It provides information on some of the processes involved in post-casting operations, namely de-coring and de-gating. The key design aspects for consideration in water quenching during the T6 heat treatment are reviewed. The chapter also provides information on two critical cycle events important in engineering at the manufacturing facility: tipper cycle planning and table or cell cycle planning.

Steel is broadly classified as plain-carbon steels, low-alloy steels, and high-alloy steels. This chapter begins by describing microconstituents of low- and medium-carbon steel, including bainite and martensite. This is followed by a section discussing the effect of alloying elements on steel. Then, it provides an overview of steel casting applications. Next, the chapter reviews engineering guidelines for steel castings and feeder design. The following section provides information on feeding aids. Further, the chapter describes the elements of gating systems for steel castings. It also describes the alloys, properties, applications, and engineering details of steel. Finally, the chapter explains defects in steel castings and presents guidelines for problem solving with examples.

This chapter discusses the various failure analysis techniques for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), focusing on conventional semiconductor manufacturing processes and materials. The discussion begins with a section describing the advances in integration and packaging technologies that have helped drive the further proliferation of MEMS devices in the marketplace. It then shows some examples of the top MEMS applications and quickly discusses the fundamentals of their workings. The next section describes common failure mechanisms along with techniques and challenges in identifying them. The chapter also provides information on the testing of MEMS devices. It covers the two common challenges in sample preparation for MEMS: decapping, or opening up the package, without disturbing the MEMS elements; and removing MEMS elements for analysis. Finally, the chapter discusses the aspects of failure analysis techniques that are of particular interest to MEMS.

This chapter discusses the particular corrosion problems encountered and the methods of control used in petroleum production and the storage and transportation of oil and gas up to the refinery. It begins by describing those aspects of corrosion that tend to be unique to corrosion as encountered in applications involving oil and gas exploration and production. This is followed by a section reviewing the methods of corrosion control, namely the proper selection of materials, protective coatings, cathodic protection systems, use of inhibitors, use of nonmetallic materials, and control of the environment. The chapter ends with a discussion on the problems encountered and protective measures that are based on the state-of-the-art as practiced daily by corrosion and petroleum engineers and production personnel.