This appendix lists the designations, commercial sources, and suppliers of different types of fibers and resins.

Most filament winding machines now have computer controls and at least three axes. Winding with four axes is increasingly common because the shapes of the products have evolved to include more complexity. The automation used on the winding machine and ancillary components does not eliminate the need for proper fiber handling. This chapter is a primer on modern filament winding equipment and its use, starting with an overview of machine control and then discussing the design and structural analysis of filament wound components such as pressure vessels, pipes, grid structures, deep sea oil platform drill risers, high-speed rotors, and filament-wound preforms.

This chapter reviews the development of filament winding systems and the automated processes used in state-of-the-art filament winding facilities. It first provides a description on the early stages of modern filament winding, followed by brief information on the advances of filament winding in the computer age. Then, the chapter discusses the requirements for filament winding in manufacturing oil and gas industry components and in high-volume production of sporting goods, propane tanks, and curing ovens. The chapter concludes with examples of the versatility of filament winding in producing complex parts.

This chapter outlines a methodology for the design of cylindrical pressure vessels, with emphasis on the establishment of winding patterns and the interaction between the real fiber bed geometry (finite roving dimensions) and the theoretical one. To highlight the materials-shape/pattern-roving interaction, an outline of the basic principles of pressure vessel design is provided. After a short section on laminate thickness approximation techniques (essential for establishing a range of acceptable roving dimensions), the chapter concludes with an example demonstrating the methodology from an initial set of design parameters up to the final stage, including patterns, roving dimensions, and production time minimization.

This chapter discusses the ways in which the evolution of filament winding software systems has capitalized on the inherent flexibility of computer numerical controlled winding machines and enhanced their productivity. It provides a detailed discussion on different types of geometries that can be wound, from the simple to the highly complex, with insight into the limitations, advantages, and challenges of each. Components covered include classic axisymmetric parts (rings, pipes, driveshafts, pipe reducers, tapered shafts, closed-end pressure vessels, and storage tanks), nonround sections (aeromasts, airfoils, box sections, and fuselage sections), curved-axis parts (elbows, ducts), and special applications (tees). Basic winding concepts, such as band pattern, are discussed and explained, and some simple predictive formulae are introduced. The chapter also provides examples of programming various geometries using advanced software tools and discusses how various materials, such as rovings, tow-preg, prepreg tape, and woven materials, affect winding program generation.

This chapter outlines a method for mathematically describing fiber trajectories on a shell of revolution. After a short outline of the basic geometry of shells of revolution, the focus shifts to fiber trajectories and their characteristic metrics, angles, and vectors. Next, the chapter focuses on the determination of various kinds of curvatures that eventually lead to the derivation of (non-) geodesic fiber trajectories according to a predetermined coefficient of friction. It concludes with the analysis of nongeodesics on conical segments, annuli, and cylinders.

This chapter addresses the hardware requirements for filament winding, from elementary processing equipment to more advanced systems. The chapter describes the equipment, defines how it is best used, and presents real-life examples. It describes a helical horizontal filament winding machine system and a vertical winding machine. The chapter provides information on in-plane (polar) winders and several types of creels, namely stationary and no twist, rotating, braking, and combinations thereof. Comprehensive descriptions of mandrel designs used in filament winding are presented in text and illustration. The chapter also reviews process control of filament winding parameters, including for some specialized winding processes and unique component types.

The technology of fabricating composite hardware and structures by filament winding has evolved empirically through the development and manufacturing of specific components. This chapter reviews areas of technology used in building composite parts and discusses the processes from which the current technology was derived. The discussion covers quality control requirements for composite fabrication technology and cleanliness standards in the workplace. It describes technology developed for specific components, including satellites struts, aircraft hydraulic cylinders, drill pipe, drive shafts, couplings, and cryogenic tubing.

The objective of mechanical testing of an engineered material is to provide data necessary for the analysis, design, and fabrication of structural components using the material. The testing of filament-wound composite materials offers unique challenges because of the special characteristics of composites. This chapter describes suitable static mechanical test techniques for characterizing laminated composite materials. The approach is to provide recommended techniques, based on consensus opinions of fabricators and users of filament-wound composites, and to survey available techniques that have been used successfully in the field. The chapter describes the effects of various factors on the properties of composite constituents, including fibers, resins, and unidirectional plies. Some aspects of specimen selection are also described. The chapter provides information on pressure bottles and tubular parts that have been developed as standard test specimens for combined load testing of composites.

The necessity of developing the lightest-weight structures with sufficient strength was the driving factor for the development of filament-wound composite pressure vessels. This chapter presents a brief history of the development of rocket motor cases (RMCs), followed by a comparison of the advantages of composites over metals for RMCs. A discussion on a typical design, analysis, and manufacturing operation follows. The chapter introduces the basic design approach and shows some sizing techniques along with example calculations. It discusses the processes involved in the testing of the composite pressure vessel.

This appendix is a compilation of terms and definitions related to composite filament winding.

The hot-working process extrusion is used to produce semifinished products in the form of bar, strip, and solid sections, as well as tubes and hollow sections. The first part of this chapter describes the composition, properties, and applications of tin and lead extruded products with a deformation temperature range of 0 to 300 deg C and magnesium and aluminum extruded products with a working temperature range of 300 to 600 deg C. The second part focuses on copper alloy extruded products, extruded titanium alloy products, and extruded products in iron alloys with a working temperature range of 600 to 1300 deg C.

This chapter opens with a discussion of the classification of rod and tube extrusion processes. The standard processes involve hot working (extrusion at temperatures above room temperature), but some specialized cold working processes are also used for rod and tube extrusion. The next section reviews principles, variations, thermal conditions, axial load calculation, material flow, and applications of direct extrusion and indirect extrusion, with examples provided for extrusion of aluminum and copper alloys. Next, the chapter focuses on the process principles, advantages, and applications of conventional hydrostatic extrusion and thick film processes. This is followed by sections providing information on the special extrusion processes, namely conform process and cable sheathing. The chapter ends with a discussion on direct and indirect tube extrusion.

Compared with other deformation processes used to produce semifinished products, the hot-working extrusion process has the advantage of applying pure compressive forces in all three force directions, enhancing workability. The available variations in the extrusion process enable a wide spectrum of materials to be extruded. This chapter focuses on the processes involved in the extrusion of semifinished products in various metals and their alloys, namely tin, lead, lead-base soft solders, tin-base soft solders, zinc, magnesium, aluminum, copper, titanium, zirconium, iron, nickel, and powder metals. It discusses their properties and applications as well as suitable equipment for extrusion. It further discusses the processes involved in the extrusion of semifinished products in exotic alloys and extrusion of semifinished products from metallic composite materials.

This chapter begins with a description of the requirements of tooling and tooling material for hot extrusion. It covers the processes of designing tool and die sets for direct and indirect extrusion. Next, the chapter provides information on extrusion tooling and die sets for direct external and internal shape production and tools for copper alloy extrusion. Further, it addresses design, calculation, and dimensioning of single-piece and two-part containers and describes induction heating for containers. Information on static- and elastic-based analysis and dimensioning of containers loaded in three dimensions is provided. Examples of calculations for different containers, along with their stresses and dimensions, are presented and the manufacture, operation, and maintenance of containers are described. The chapter further discusses the properties and applications of hot working materials for the manufacture of extrusion tooling and of different extruded materials for the manufacture of extrusion tooling for direct and indirect forming.

This appendix contains tables listing the approximate composition of materials for the extrusion process. The materials covered are aluminum alloys, magnesium and magnesium alloys, copper and copper alloys, cobalt alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, iron alloys, steels, lead, tin, zinc alloys, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum, zirconium alloys, titanium, and titanium alloys.

This chapter provides an overview of the basic principles and historic development of metal extrusion processes. It starts by illustrating the two major process categories: direct extrusion and indirect extrusion. It then briefly defines hydrostatic extrusion and the conform process. The history coverage addresses early patents for extrusion of lead at the turn of the 17th century up through the major process innovations in the 20th century.

This chapter explains the basic terminology and principles of metallurgy as they apply to extrusion. It begins with an overview of crystal structure in metals and alloys, including crystal defects and orientation. This is followed by sections discussing the development of the continuous cast microstructure of aluminum and copper alloys. The discussion provides information on billet and grain segregation and defects in continuous casting. The chapter then discusses the processes involved in the deformation of pure metals and alloys at room temperature. Next, it describes the characteristics of pure metals and alloys at higher temperatures. The processes involved in extrusion are then covered. The chapter provides details on how the toughness and fracture characteristics of metals and alloys affect the extrusion process. The weld seams in hollow profiles, the production of composite profiles, and the processing of composite materials, as well as the extrusion of metal powders, are discussed. The chapter ends with a discussion on the factors that define the extrudability of metallic materials and how these attributes are characterized.

The machinery and equipment required for rod and tube extrusion is determined by the specific extrusion process. This chapter provides a detailed description of the design requirements and principles of machinery and equipment for direct and indirect hot extrusion. It then covers the presses and auxiliary equipment for tube extrusion, induction furnaces for billet processing, handling systems for copper and aluminum alloy products, extrusion cooling systems, and age-hardening ovens. Next, the chapter describes the principles and applications of equipment for the production of aluminum and copper billets. Then, it focuses on process control in both direct and indirect hot extrusion of aluminum alloys without lubrication. The chapter describes the technology of electrical and electronic controls in the extrusion process. It ends with a discussion on the factors that influence the productivity and quality of the products in the extrusion process and methods for process optimization.